in  Lib. 

.  Oeot* 


SOUTHERN  PORK 
PRODUCTION 


SOUTHERN  PORK 
PRODUCTION 


BY 

P.  V.  EWING,  M.  S. 

l\ 
Animal  Husbandman  in  Charge  of  Swine  Investigations,   Texas 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station.     Formerly  with  Ohio  State 

University,  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College,  and 

Georgia  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


ILLUSTRATED 


NEW  YORK 

ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

1918 


SOUTHERN  PORK 
PRODUCTION 


BY 

P.  V.  EWING,  M.  S. 

l\ 
Animal  Husbandman  in  Charge  of  Swine  Investigations,   Texas 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station.     Formerly  with  Ohio  State 

University,  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College,  and 

Georgia  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


ILLUSTRATED 


NEW  YORK 

ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

1918 


COPYRIGHT,  1918, 
BY  ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

All  Rights  Reserved 


[Printed  in  U.  S.  A.] 


PREFACE 

A  leading  thought  in  the  preparation  of  this  volume 
has  been  that  swine  husbandry  offers  the  easiest  and 
safest  kind  of  live  stock  endeavor  to  which  the  South, 
as  a  whole,  is  generally  adapted.  Special  emphasis  and 
stress  has  been  placed  on  the  practical  side  of  pork  pro- 
duction, but  as  much  of  the  scientific  and  theoretical  as 
may  have  an  important  bearing  on  the  practice  has  been 
included.  Successful  southern  hog  growers  have  been 
freely  consulted,  and  the  farm  press  of  the  South  has 
assisted  materially  in  the  preparation  of  the  manuscript. 

The  author  here  wishes  to  express  his  appreciation  of 
the  generous  assistance  which  has  been  accorded  him  by 
many,  and  especially  for  the  aid  given  him  by  his  father, 
R.  B.  Ewing,  by  Prof.  C.  L.  Willoughby  of  the  College 
of  Agriculture  of  the  University  of  Florida,  and  by  the 
many  agricultural  workers  and  swine  breeders  who 
assisted  in  supplying  the  photographs. 

P.  V.  EWING. 


394119 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  I 
Economic  Aspects  of  the  Swine  Industry 1 

CHAPTER  II 
Principles  of  Swine  Breeding 17 

CHAPTER  III 
Breeds  of  Swine 48 

CHAPTER  IV 
Judging  Swine 80 

CHAPTER  V 
Showing  Swine 106 

CHAPTER  VI 
Feeding  Swine 121 

CHAPTER  VII 
Swine  Management 150 

CHAPTER  VIII 
Swine  Diseases  and  Their  Control 174 

CHAPTER  IX 

Marketing •  •  209 

CHAPTER  X 
Pork  .  235 


List  of  Illustrations 

Page 

Pork  production  in  Mississippi  modernized — Frontispiece 

Some  farmers  combine  beef  and  pork  production    ...  2 

Typical  unprofitable  Coastal  Plain  pine-woods  rooters    .        .  8 

Moultrie  Packing  Plant,  Moultrie,  Ga 11 

Distribution  of  boys'  pigs  club  pigs 13 

Distribution  of  swine  in  southern  states 15 

Proper  feeding  must  accompany  breeding        .        .        ;        .21 

Swine  breeding  is  dependent  on  the  reproductive  process      .  24 

This  type  is  on  the  increase  in  many  sections  of  the  South      .  29 

Utility  should  be  made  the  basis  of  all  breeding  operations    .  37 

Litter  mates ;  fed  by  a  pig  club  boy  and  his  father  ...  40 

Blood  lines  of  the  Poland-China 54 

Poland-China  gilt,  Jennie  Girl  (581414) 55 

Blood  lines  of  the  Chester  White  and  O.  I.  C.        .        .        .  56 

Blood  lines  of  the  Small  Yorkshire 58 

Blood  lines  of  the  Duroc-Jersey 60 

Duroc-Jersey  boar,  Defender's  Ohio  Chief   (45899)       .        .  61 

Blood  lines  of  the  Essex 63 

Blood  lines  of  the  Cheshire 64 

Berkshire  gilt,  Premier's  Queen  25  (179325)  ....  65 

Blood  lines  of  the  Berkshire 66 

Hampshire  gilt 67 

Louisiana  bred  Tamworth  sow 71 

Big  Guinea  swine  on  Willow  Dale  Farm,  Mayfield,  Ga.  .        .  74 

Points  of  the  hog 79 

The  butcher  helps  establish  the  ideal  pork  type        ...  85 
From  the  rear  the  fat  hog  presents  a  compact  appearance      .  86 
Wholesale   cuts  marked   on   Champion   Barrow  1913   Inter- 
national   87 

The  body  of  the  fat  hog  is  judged  largely  from  the  side  view  90 

Large  type  breeding  swine  are  popular  in  the  show  ring        .  96 

Mississippi  State  Fair  Grand  Champion  Sows  of  1915    .        .  107 

Proper  shelter  is  essential  in  show  fitting        ....  113 

Personal  attention  is  essential  in  show  fitting           .        .        .  118 

IX 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  X 

Page 

Most  grazing  crops  should  be  supplemented    ....  123 

Feed  wastes  can  be  prevented  by  properly  constructed  troughs  133 

Feeding  city  garbage  near  New  Orleans,  La 144 

Self-feeders  are  becoming  more  popular  in  the  South  .        .  148 

Monitor  type  winter  farrowing  house 150 

Half  monitor  type  winter  farrowing  house      ....  152 

The  common  A-shaped  portable  hog  house      ....  155 

Cheap  type  small  farrowing  house  and  pen      ....  156 

A-type   individual   farrowing  houses 157 

Grazing  lots  make  fall  litters  profitable 162 

Winter  farrowing  houses  in  North  Carolina            .        .        .  169 

Lots  to  which  sows  and  pigs  are  taken  from  farrowing  houses  171 

Sunlight  and  dips  are  used  to  prevent  disease          .        .        .  174 

Administering  serum  to  prevent  hog  cholera    ....  185 

Cement  wallowing  hole  used  to  control  lice      ....  200 

Typical  drove  of  fat  hogs  coming  to  the  Atlanta  market          .  217 

Co-operative  hog  shipping  day  at  Yazoo  City,  Mississippi      .  222 

Too  large  for  suitable  pork  production  in  the  South     .        .  230 

Home  packing  products  resulting  from  high  specialization     .  233 

Making  pure-bred  Tamworth  pork  on  Westview  Stock  Farm  236 

In  the  cooler  at  Moultrie  Packing  Plant,  Moultrie,  Ga.          .  241 

Hung  up  to  cool  overnight  on  farm  of  O.  F.  Troutman    .        .  247 

Showing  the  usual  method  of  cutting  a  side  of  pork      .        .  248 

Smoke  room  of  modern  southern  packing  plant              .        .  256 


CHAPTER  I 

ECONOMIC  ASPECTS  OF  THE  SWINE 
INDUSTRY 

Live  stock  farming  necessary. — It  is  imperative  that 
southern  farmers  grow  more  live  stock  if  we  are  to  have 
a  permanent  system  of  agriculture.  We  can  raise  more 
cotton  by  adopting  a  system  of  farming  that  will  guar- 
antee an  increase  in  soil  fertility  instead  of  a  continual 
decrease,  as  at  present.  The  tenant  cotton  farmer  has  no 
attachment  for  his  land.  Even  the  cotton  farmer  who 
owns  his  land  is  in  reality  a  tenant,  for  he  hopes  that  his 
children  may  not  need  to  live  on  his  farm,  but  that  they 
will  have  something  better.  On  the  contrary,  the  man 
on  the  live  stock  farm  looks  far  into  the  future,  and  he  is 
more  firmly  attached  to  his  land  and  has  its  future  at 
heart,  and  he  is  a  true  landowner  and  improver. 

Importance  of  soil  conservation. — Over  40  per  cent  of 
all  products  used  in  the  factories  of  our  country  have 
their  origin  in  the  soil.  This  makes  agriculture  the  most 
fundamental  of  all  our  national  resources.  We  should, 
therefore,  take  steps  to  conserve  and  add  to  our  resources 
of  soil  fertility  rather  than  to  continue  depleting  them, 
as  in  the  past.  This  is  much  more  applicable  to  the 
South  than  elsewhere,  for  here,  not  merely  40,  but  over 
90  per  cent,  of  the  raw  products  used  in  our  factories 
come  from  the  soil.  Without  a  fertile  soil  the  South  can- 
not long  retain  the  position  she  now  holds  as  the  world's 
greatest  producer  of  cotton.  We  must  also  have  foods, 


*  PODUCTION 


and  we  need  a  fertile  soil  to  produce  them.  Prosperity 
follows  soil  fertility,  and  we  cannot  maintain  even  a 
moderate  degree  of  prosperity  unless  we  take  immediate 
steps  to  conserve  the  fertility  of  our  soils.  We  need  a 
decreased  acreage  and  increased  production,  and  this  can 
only  be  secured  by  live  stock  growing,  with  a  judicious 
and  abundant  application  of  barnyard  manure. 

To  some  the  necessity  of  adopting  a  type  of  live  stock 
farming  may  be  apparent,  but  that  type  which  will  prove 


Some  farmers  combine  beef  and  pork  production,  as  on  Aldurin 
Farm,  Avalon,  Ga. 

most  profitable  is  not  always  clear.  At  the  present  time, 
most  of  the  South,  notably  the  Piedmont  area  and  the 
Coastal  Plain,  is  engaged  in  agriculture  of  a  sufficiently 
intensive  type  to  warrant  a  careful  consideration  before 
the  growing  of  beef  cattle  is  adopted.  Some  sections  of 
the  South  are  admirably  adapted  to  extensive  beef  pro- 
duction, but  for  the  most  part  swine  and  dairy  cattle  will 
eventually  prove  more  profitable. 


ECONOMIC  ASPECTS   OF   THE   SWINE   INDUSTRY  3 

Live  stock  vs.  commercial  fertilizers. — A  comparison 
of  the  agriculture  of  the  north  and  south  Atlantic  states 
shows  the  distinct  superiority  of  barnyard  manures  over 
commercial  fertilizers  in  enriching  soils  and  increasing 
yields.  In  natural  fertility  all  of  the  Atlantic  coast  states 
are  nearly  on  a  par,  and  in  this  respect  the  north  Atlantic 
states  are  comparable  with  the  south  Atlantic  states. 
Nevertheless,  after  a  period  of  farming  extending  be- 
tween fifty  and  a  hundred  years  we  find  the  following 
statistics,  taken  from  the  Federal  Census  of  1910 : 

North  Atlantic  South  Atlantic 

Acreage  of  improved  lands 38,920,614        48,479,733 

Value  of  live  stock $447,056,358     $366,534,152 

Value  of  products  per  farm $562  $363 

Improved  land  per  farm 50.5  43.6 

Average  value  per  farm $5,456  $2,654 

Land     $2,573  $1,694 

Buildings $1,938  $542 

Live  stock $632  $330 

Average  expenditure  per  acre  for  fer- 
tilizer      $0.77  $1.23 

From  this  it  is  seen  that  although  we  use  more  fer- 
tilizers in  the  south  Atlantic  states,  yet  the  value  of  our 
products  per  farm  is  much  less ;  and  while  our  acreage  is 
greater,  the  value  of  live  stock  in  the  north  Atlantic  states 
is  much  higher.  These  figures  show  that  greater  yields 
and  prosperity  follow  live  stock,  and  that  we  should  seek 
to  enrich  our  soils  with  barnyard  manures  rather  than  by 
commercial  fertilizers. 

Present  situation. — The  cotton  growers  are  just  begin- 
ning to  realize  the  true  state  of  affairs,  and  recognize  the 
necessity  for  action.  Some  are  conservative  and  others 
lack  courage.  We  have  seen  the  work  of  the  pioneers  in 
hog  raising  in  the  South,  and  their  efforts  have  resulted 
in  a  great  improvement  in  the  native  stock.  Today  we 


4  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

are  fortunate  in  having  a  few  good  swine  breeders  scat- 
tered widely  over  the  South.  It  is  largely  due  to  their 
efforts  and  courage  that  the  southern  swine  industry  has 
developed  so  rapidly  in  the  past  10  years.  They  have 
demonstrated  what  can  be  done.  They  have  not  only 
produced  pork  at  a  profit,  but  they  have  enriched  their 
soils,  greatly  increased  their  acre  yields,  and  now  have  a 
competence.  It  is  high  time  that  others  follow  their 
example.  The  higher  prices  of  meats  in  general,  the 
continued  depletion  of  our  soils  under  the  one-crop 
system,  the  tenancy  evil,  and  the  boll  weevil  menace,  are 
all  sufficient  reasons  in  themselves  to  cause  every  farmer 
to  enter  the  field  of  live  stock  production.  The  four 
combined  reasons  make  either  pork  production  or  the 
beginning  of  some  other  form  of  live  stock  work  an  eco- 
nomic necessity,  to  which  we  must  acquiesce  sooner  or  later. 

Adaptability  of  the  South  for  swine  production. — The 

South  is  pre-eminently  adapted  to  pork  production  for 
several  reasons.  In  the  first  place,  we  can  supply  feeds 
for  swine  cheaper  than  any  other  section.  We  have  grass 
a  greater  number  of  days  in  the  year  than  elsewhere. 
This  is  a  blessing  in  disguise,  for  grass  is  the  basis  of  any 
system  of  live  stock  farming.  The  South  can  have  cheap 
grass  in  the  greatest  abundance.  The  mild  climate  per- 
mits a  long  growing  season  for  cultivated  feed  crops. 
Also,  the  expense  of  housing  and  sheds  for  protection 
from  the  elements  is  not  so  great  as  in  the  more  severe 
climates.  Cheap  lands  are  abundant,  and  most  of  these 
are  admirably  adapted  to  pork  production.  The  amount 
of  tillable  land  is  ample  to  produce  the  forage  and  other 
crops.  We  can  grow  the  greatest  variety  of  forage  crops, 
especially  the  legumes,  which  not  only  supply  an  'abun- 


ECONOMIC   ASPECTS  OF   THE   SWINE   INDUSTRY  5 

dance  of  nutritious  feeds,  but  which  assist  in  enriching 
our  depleted  soils. 

Natural  conditions  favorable  for  pork  production. — On 

account  of  climatic  and  economic  advantages,  and  in 
every  other  way,  the  South  is  destined  to  become  a  great 
pork-producing  section.  Corn  is  increasing  in  use  as  a 
human  food  without  the  agency  of  the  hog,  and  the  crops 
which  will  be  used  for  pork  production  in  the  South  are 
not  such  as  can  be  used  for  human  food  so  easily  as  corn. 
In  the  South,  grazing  crops  can  be  used  all  the  year  to  a 
greater  or  lesser  extent.  Not  only  do  legumes  and  the 
small  grains  do  well,  but  fattening  crops,  such  as  corn, 
chufas,  peanuts,  cowpeas,  beans,  sweet  potatoes  and 
cassava,  all  make  good  growth.  In  an  economic  way  the 
production  of  live  stock  in  the  cotton  regions  has  become 
a  necessity,  and  in  adapting  ourselves  to  some  type  of 
animal  husbandry,  we  shall  naturally  take  to  that  type 
which  has  proven  most  profitable.  The  seasons  are 
adapted  to  swine  production  because  the  winters  are  mild 
and  the  summers  not  excessively  hot,  as  they  are  tem- 
pered by  cool  breezes  and  an  abundant  rainfall.  Diseases 
are  no  more  prevalent  than  in  other  sections,  and  the 
indications  are  that  diseases  are  rarer  in  the  South 
than  in  the  North  (probably  due  to  more  sunshine),  and  that 
the  losses  are  due  more  to  poor  management  than  to  disease. 

Pork  production  a  pasturing  proposition. — One  of  the 

principal  advantages  of  the  South  as  a  swine-growing 
section  is  the  ease  with  which  so  many  valuable  swine- 
grazing  crops  can  be  grown.  Grasses  do  well  and  culti- 
vated crops  can  be  produced  practically  every  month  in 
the  year.  Summer  grasses,  such  as  Bermuda,  nut  grass, 
crab  grass  and  wire  grass,  do  well;  while  the  clovers, 


0  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

such  as  crimson,  burr,  red,  white  and  Japan,  and  the 
vetches,  both  the  wild  and  the  tame,  provide  legumes  for 
grazing  the  entire  year.  In  addition,  crops  such  as  rape, 
oats,  rye,  sweet  potatoes,  alfalfa,  cowpeas,  velvet  beans, 
chufas,  cassava,  artichokes,  corn,  peanuts,  sorghum  and 
other  valuable  crops,  make  it  possible  to  arrange  for  hog 
pastures  at  all  times.  With  no  cheap  carbohydrate  con- 
centrate, it  is  out  of  the  question  for  the  South  to  com- 
pete with  the  Corn  Belt  in  fattening  hogs  in  feed  lots. 
The  Corn  Belt  is  rapidly  coming  to  realize  the  advan- 
tages of  grazing  crops,  but  the  South  can  grow  a  greater 
variety  and  have  more  grazing  in  winter  than  is  possible 
in  the  North  and  West.  It  has  for  a  long  time  been 
recognized  that  hogs  cannot  be  successfully  produced  on 
an  extensive  scale  without  pastures,  and  any  large  swine 
industry  in  the  South  must  of  necessity  be  to  a  consider- 
able extent  a  pasture  proposition,  as  this  has  proven  to 
be  the  most  practical  and  profitable. 

Market  values  of  beef  and  pork. — In  making  a  study  of 
market  prices  of  hogs  and  cattle  in  the  South  with  corre- 
sponding market  prices  in  the  North  and  West,  we  must 
of  necessity  be  impressed  with  the  fact  that  at  all  seasons 
of  the  year  the  prices  paid  for  hogs  compare  well,  with 
occasional  better  prices  in  the  South.  In  the  case  of 
cattle,  the  prevailing  prices  are  seldom  equal  to  the 
northern  and  western  prices,  and  in  most  cases  they  are 
only  about  three-fourths  of  the  prices  prevailing  in  the 
North  and  West.  It  is  true,  of  course,  that  southern  hogs 
compare  better  in  class  with  the  hogs  produced  in  the 
North  and  West  than  the  classes  of  cattle  compare. 
Nevertheless,  there  is  a  difference  which  is  sufficient  to 
have  a  considerable  effect  on  pork  production. 


ECONOMIC   ASPECTS   OF   THE    SWINE   INDUSTRY  7 

Credits  and  swine  production. — One  important  reason 
why  more  southern  farmers  have  not  entered  into  an 
extensive  system  of  pork  production  has  been  the  lack  of 
adequate  capital,  for  some  capital  is  required,  and  bank- 
ers and  merchants  have  not  been  willing  to  credit  farmers 
on  many  crops  except  cotton.  With  some  farmers  it  is 
therefore  compulsory  that  they  raise  cotton  exclusively. 
Conditions  in  this  respect  are  rapidly  improving,  how- 
ever, and  banks  and  bankers  are  encouraging  in  every 
way  possible  a  greater  production  of  live  stock,  especially 
swine.  The  merchants  will  be  influenced  by  the  action  of 
the  bankers,  and  this  great  drawback  will  gradually  be 
overcome,  and  the  farmers  will  reduce  their  cotton  acre- 
age and  devote  more  attention  to  a  permanent  system  of 
live  stock  farming  that  will  guarantee  a  more  permanent 
agriculture  for  the  cotton  belt.  The  time  is  near  at  hand 
when  live  stock  will  be  considered  as  much  or  more  of  an 
asset  than  so  much  cotton. 

Labor  a  limiting  factor. — One  of  the  important  limiting 
factors  upon  a  greater  swine  industry  in  the  South  is  that 
of  labor.  It  is  not  so  much  a  question  of  quantity  of 
labor  as  of  quality.  The  average  cotton  negro  has  no 
interest  in  live  stock  and  has  little  natural  ability  in  the 
care,  feeding  and  management  of  animals.  This  is  due 
to  congenital  conditions  and  environment.  A  few 
negroes  that  have  been  brought  up  with  live  stock  about 
them  in  early  life  may  by  proper  training  become  excel- 
lent caretakers  and  manifest  some  interest  and  love  for 
the  work.  While  the  labor  question  requires  careful 
consideration,  yet  it  is  a  difficulty  that  will  decrease 
readily  with  effort  toward  education.  The  average  cotton 
negro  has  not  been  trained  to  properly  take  care  of  swine. 


8 


SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 


Classes  of  hogs  grown  in  the  South. — There  is  no 
reason  why  the  pork  produced  in  the  South  cannot  be 
equal  in  every  respect  to  that  produced  in  the  North  and 
West.  To  be  sure,  the  hogs  that  are  marketed  in  the 
South  at  present  vary  some  from  those  marketed  from 
the  Corn  Belt.  The  hogs  that  are  produced  in  the  South 
do  not  as  a  rule  have  the  breeding,  uniformity  of  size  and 


Typical  unprofitable  Coastal  Plain  pine-woods  rooters.    Courtesy 
S.  M.  Byars  of  South  Carolina. 

condition  of  the  northern  and  western  hogs.  Also,  a 
great  many  swine  from  the  Coastal  Plain  region  of  the 
southern  states  are  fattened  on  peanuts  or  ground  peas, 
with  the  result  that  the  pork  has  an  oily  constituency, 
and  is  termed  soft  pork,  which  is  greatly  discriminated 
against  by  most  packers.  When  swine  are  fattened  on 
peanuts,  it  is  usually  the  custom  to  top  them  off  with 
corn  or  other  feeds  to  harden  the  fat. 


ECONOMIC  ASPECTS   OF   THE   SWINE   INDUSTRY  9 

When  we  consider  breeding,  the  South  is  far  behind 
other  sections  of  America,  and  the  proverbial  "razorback" 
is  altogether  too  frequent.  Improvement  is  rapidly  tak- 
ing place  and  this  drawback  will  soon  be  removed.  The 
number  of  hogs  that  are  produced  on  each  farm  is,  as  a 
rule,  more  or  less  limited,  which  means  than  uniformity 
will  be  somewhat  difficult  to  attain.  The  improvement 
made  in  recent  years  in  arriving  at  the  most  profitable 
class  of  hogs  from  both  the  standpoint  of  the  producer 
and  packer  has  been  rapid,  and  it  will  not  be  many  years 
until  the  South  in  general  will  be  marketing  swine  that 
on  the  whole  will  compare  quite  favorably  with  swine 
from  the  Corn  Belt  and  West. 

Increase  in  soil  fertility  due  to  swine  grazing. — Not 
only  is  it  possible  for  the  farmer  to  make  a  profit  from 
grazing  off  a  crop  and  turning  it  into  pork,  but  by  so 
doing  he  thereby  greatly  increases  the  future  capacity  of 
the  land  for  growing  staple  crops.  This  has  been  clearly 
pointed  out  by  Gray1,  in  reports  on  some  work  done  by 
Bennett2  at  the  Arkansas  Station,  with  results  as  shown 
in  the  following  table  : 

INCREASE  IN  COTTON  YIELD  DUE  TO  GROWING  AND  GRAZING  OFF  OF  CROPS 

Av.  %      Val.  of 

inc.  in     inc.  per 

seed    acre  each 

cotton      year 

due  to      Lint 

Lbs.  seed    Lbs.  seed    Av.  yield      growing     lie. 

cotton  cotton    seed  cotton    and  graz-   Seed 

1899  1900        1899-1900       ing  crop      60c. 

Cotton  following  peanuts 

grazed  by  hogs 1,771  1,134  1,452.5  61.1  $22.81 

Cotton  following  soy 

beans  grazed  by  hogs__  1,588  1,020  1,304.0  44.6  16.35 
Cotton  following  chufas 

grazed  by  hogs 1,200  981  1,090.0  20.9  7.68 

Cotton  following  corn 

not  grazed  by  hogs—     1,005  798  9)1.5          ___          

1  Farmers'  Bulletin  411. 

'Arkansas  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  68. 


10  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

From  this  is  seen  the  great  increase  in  yield  in  future 
crops  by  growing  and  grazing  certain  crops.    Thus,  when 
we  compute  the  value  of  an  acre  in  grazing  crops  for 
swine,  we  must  not  only  figure  on  the  amount  of  pork  it 
will  produce,  but  also  on  the  increase  in  the  future  pro- 
ducing capacity  of  the  land  in  cotton,   corn  and  other 
crops.    From  the  above  figures  we  can  see,  in  the  case  of 
growing   and   grazing   a  crop    of   peanuts    followed   by 
cotton,  that  more  cotton  was  produced  in  the  two  follow- 
ing years  than  would  have  been  produced  had  cotton  been 
in  the  land  all  three  years.     In  addition,  this  cotton  was 
produced  at  two-thirds  the  cost  required  with   land  in 
cotton  three  years  straight.     Thus  in  three  years'  time, 
by  growing  a  crop  of  peanuts  and  pasturing  them  off, 
the  farmer  not  only  can  make  money  on  each  crop  of 
cotton  and  on  the  pork  produced  on  the  peanuts,  but  in 
the  two  years  following,  the  increase  in  yield  is  more 
than  enough  to  make  an  extra  crop  of  cotton  without 
additional  cost.     This   increase  in  yield  holds  over  lor 
several  years.     Thus  we  can  see  that  the  growing  of 
crops  and  grazing  them  off  not  only  offers  a  direct  means 
of  profit,  but  provides  for  a  much  greater  indirect  profit 
through  increased  soil  fertility.     It  virtually  means  that 
every  man  can  have  a  fertilizer  factory  on  his  farm  that 
will  not  only  supply  him  with  nearly  all  of  the  fertilizers 
he  needs  free  of  cost,  but  will  itself  be  a  source  of  revenue. 
Hogs  on  diversified  farms. — At  some  time  in  the  future 
most  of  the  farms  of  the  South  will  be  diversified  farms, 
farms  from  which  some  grain,  some  cotton,  truck  crops, 
fruit,  dairy  products,  and  some  meat  animals  will  be  sold. 
A  diversified  farm  is  not  complete  without  some  hogs. 
They  can  make  pork  out  of  what  would  be  otherwise 
wasted.    They  can  save  the  grain  left  in  the  field  after 


ECONOMIC  ASPECTS   OF   THE   SWINE   INDUSTRY  11 

harvest ;  they  will  eat  the  left-over  cottonseed  and  waste 
of  culls  from  all  sorts  of  trucking  operations,  fallen 
fruits  containing  the  larvae  of  injurious  insects  will  be 
utilized,  the  skim  milk  and  buttermilk  can  be  made  into 
pork,  and  the  droppings  of  other  live  stock  will  be 
gleaned  for  undigested  food  materials.  As  converters 
of  otherwise  waste  products  into  something  with  a  mar- 
ket value  hogs  are  supreme. 

Southern  tendency  of  pork  production. — The  south- 
ward tendency  of  pork  production  is  not  better  illustrated 
than  by  reference  to  the  report  of  the  Thirteenth  Census. 
In  this  we  find  that  during  the  decade  of  1900  to  1910  the 
West  Central  states,  comprising  the  greater  portion  of 
the  Corn  Belt,  lost  12.9  per  cent  in  number  of  hogs,  while 
the  south  Atlantic  divisions  gained  7.2  per  cent  in  the 


Moultrie  Packing  Plant,  Moultrie,  Ga. 

same  period.  The  southern  tendency  of  pork  production 
is  shown  in  several  ways.  A  study  of  the  several  cen- 
suses shows  that  there  has  been  a  continual  rise  in  value 
per  head  of  swine  for  the  several  southern  states,  which 
rise  has  been  greater  than  in  the  other  sections.  Also, 


12  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

the  development  of  a  pork  industry  is  attested  by  the 
establishment  in  recent  years  of  several  packing  houses 
throughout  the  South. 

Boys'  pig  clubs. — Of  all  the  organized  efforts  at  im- 
provement in  the  swine  industry  in  the  southern  states 
none  is  accomplishing  more  than  the  boys'  pig  club  work. 
This  work  is  fostered  by  federal,  state  and  local  officials 
and  organizations,  with  the  most  active  part,  however, 
being  taken  by  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  in  co- 
operation with  the  Farmers'  Co-operative  Demonstration 
Work  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry.  In  each  state  is 
placed  a  state  pig  club  agent,  a  specialist  in  swine  hus- 
bandry, who  looks  after  and  supervises  the  work  in  his 
state.  In  this  work  the  county  is  made  the  unit,  but 
frequently  smaller  units  in  the  county  are  made.  County 
demonstration  agents  usually  have  the  immediate  re- 
sponsibility of  organizing  the  work  in  the  county.  This 
pig  club  work  has  been  in  existence  a  comparatively 
short  time,  but  already  it  has  accomplished  wonders  in 
the  way  of  introduction  of  improved  blood,  the  teaching 
of  improved  methods  of  production,  and  of  showing  what 
can  be  done  with  swine  in  a  small  way. 

The  objects  of  the  pig  club  work  are  briefly  set  forth 
in  Farmers'  Bulletin  566,  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  as  follows : 

1.  To  stimulate  an  interest  in  swine  production  and  to 
teach  the  boys  how  to  raise  better  and  cheaper  hogs  by 
the  use  of  improved  blood  and  the  growing  of  forage 
crops. 

2.  To  increase  the  number  of  hogs  raised  on  the  farms 
in  order  that  the  meat  for  the  home  and  that  required  to 
feed  the  extra  farm  labor  may  be  produced  instead  of 
being  bought. 


ECONOMIC  ASPECTS  OF   THE   SWINE   INDUSTRY 


13 


3.  To  complement  the  work  of  the  boys'  corn  clubs  by 
showing  the  boys  how  they  can  profitably  sell  their  corn 
through  hogs. 

4.  To  encourage  the  home  curing  of  meats  on  the  farm. 

5.  To  teach  the  boys  how  to  judge  hogs  and  to  select 
them  for  breeding  or  market  purposes. 

6.  To  encourage  the  growing  of  forage  crops  and  dis- 
courage the  use  of  high-priced  feeds. 

7.  To  instruct  the  boys  in  a  practical  way  in  the  man- 
agement, feeding,  sanitation  and  prevention  of  diseases 


Distribution  of  boys'  pig  club  pigs.    Courtesy  R.  S.  Mitchell  of 
Mississippi. 

of  swine,  all  of  which  information  proves  valuable  with 
respect  to  other  forms  of  live  stock  work. 

8.  To  give  the  boys  a  means  of  earning  some  money 
for  themselves  while  at  home. 

9.  To  instill  in  the  boys  while  young  a  love  of  animals 
which  will  result  in  their  taking  more  interest  in  farm  life, 
and  to  furnish  them  at  the  same  time  some  work  which 
will  in  a  practical  way  give  an  insight  into  the  business 
side  of  farm  life  and  incite  in  them  a  desire  to  struggle  for 
and  attain  success. 


14  SOUTHERN    PORK   PRODUCTION 

The  pig  clubs  are  usually  organized  in  a  business 
manner  with  officers.  A  simple  constitution  and  by-laws 
are  adopted.  For  a  president  of  the  club  a  leader  of  such 
work  in  the  community  is  generally  chosen.  Other  offi- 
cers are  likewise  elected,  and  the  duties  are  prescribed  in 
the  constitution  and  by-laws.  Each  club  adopts  a  set  of 
rules,  which  are  given  also  in  the  above-mentioned 
Farmers'  Bulletin,  as  follows : 

1.  Any  boy  between  the  ages  of  10  and  18  years  may 
become  a  member. 

2.  Each  boy  must  secure  at  least  one  pig  if  he  becomes 
a  member. 

3.  Each  member  must  care  for  his  stock  in  person,  and 
keep  a  record  of  the  feed  given  and  the  pasture  grazed. 
He  must  record  the  weight  of  each  pig  when  it  came  into 
his  possession,  and  at  stated  intervals,  so  as  to  determine 
the  gains.    The  date  of  farrowing  should  also  be  recorded. 

4.  Record  blanks,  which  will  be  furnished,  should  be 
rilled  out  and  certified  by  two  disinterested  persons. 

5.  Each  member  must  have  owned  and  kept  a  record  of 
his  pig  for  at  least  four  months  in  order  to  compete  for  a 
prize. 

6.  The   members    must,   whenever  possible,    show   at 
least  one  pig  at  the  county  exhibit,  and  the  winner  of  the 
county  exhibit  must  show  his  pig  at  the  state  fair. 

Geographical  distribution  of  swine  in  the  South. — As 
a  result  of  the  last  census  we  find  the  distribution  of  hogs 
in  the  several  southern  states  as  follows : 

Delaware    49,260  Maryland   301,583 

District  of  Columbia—             665  Virginia    797,635 

West   Virginia   328,188  North    Carolina 1,227,625 

South    Carolina 665,211  Georgia     1,783,684 

Florida   810,069  Kentucky   1,491,816 

Tennessee    1,387,838  Alabama 1,266,733 

Mississippi 1,292,119  Arkansas    1,518,947 

Louisiana 1,327,605  Oklahoma    1,839,030 

Texas    2,336,363 


ECONOMIC  ASPECTS   OF   THE   SWINE   INDUSTRY 


15 


From  the  above  figures  and  from  the  accompanying 
map  it  is  seen  that  as  a  general  proposition  swine  are 
rather  evenly  distributed  over  the  entire  South.  The 
larger  states  lead  in  total  numbers  and  the  smaller  states 
have  the  least  numbers.  In  numbers  the  states  rank  as 
follows :  Texas,  Oklahoma,  Georgia,  Arkansas,  Ken- 
tucky, Tennessee,  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  Alabama, 
North  Carolina,  Florida,  Virginia,  South  Carolina,  West 
Virginia  and  Maryland.  A  study  shows  that  the  more 


Distribution  of  swine  in  southern  states  according  to  Thirteenth 
Census.    (One  dot  equals  2,500  hogs.) 

level  sections  sustain  more  hogs  than  do  the  rougher  and 
more  mountainous  sections.  The  tendency  seems  to  be 
for  the  industry  to  develop  more  rapidly  in  those  sections 
that  are  more  easily  cultivated.  There  are  great  differ- 
ences in  the  hogs  of  the  different  sections  of  the  country, 
which  differences  are  largely  due  to  the  extent  of  the 
infusion  of  improved  blood.  As  a  general  proposition, 
the  farther  south  towards  the  Gulf  Coast  one  goes  the 
less  improved  the  individual. 


16  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

Average  value  of  swine  per  head. — The  difference  in 
value  of  the  hogs  in  the  different  states  is  well  brought 
out  by  the  following  figures,  showing  the  value  of  hogs 
per  head  for  several  states  on  January  1,  1916,  according 
to  figures  issued  by  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture : 

Texas $7.70  Kentucky    $  6.50 

Oklahoma  7.20  West  Virginia 900 

Louisiana    7.30  Virginia     7.00 

Mississippi    6.20  South  Carolina 8.50 

Alabama    7.60  North  Carolina 7.80 

Tennessee  6.80  Maryland    8.50 

Georgia    7.70  New  Jersey  12.80 

Florida    6.00  Delaware    9.00 

These  figures  show  how  the  value  of  swine  in  a  general 
way  declines  as  we  move  southward.  This  is  largely  due 
to  inferior  breeding  and  feeding,  both  of  which  can  be 
remedied.  One  of  the  first  efforts  to  be  made  in  the 
development  of  a  swine  industry  for  the  South  should  be 
to  use  pure-bred  boars  and  to  improve  the  feeding  by 
greater  production  of  feeds  suitable  for  hogs,  and  by  the 
application  of  modern  methods  of  feeding.  There  is  no 
good  reason  why  just  as  valuable  hogs  cannot  be  raised 
in  Florida  as  in  New  Jersey. 


CHAPTER  II 
PRINCIPLES  OF  SWINE  BREEDING 

Swine  breeding. — While  swine  breeding  is  a  science  in 
so  far  as  it  concerns  biological  functions  and  processes 
and  evolution,  it  is  an  art  in  practice.  The  practice  of 
swine  breeding  consists  in  the  development  of  those 
characteristics  which  are  of  value  to  man.  In  order  to 
accomplish  this,  the  characteristics  must  be  possessed  by 
the  animal  to  start  with.  Our  improved  breeds  of  swine 
would  never  have  attained  their  present  degree  of  per- 
fection had  not  the  high  capacity  for  feed  utilization  been 
inherent.  This  capacity  has  been  cultivated  and 
developed. 

Selection. — Progress  in  swine  breeding  has  been  made 
by  artificial  and  methodical  selection  based  on  utility.  In 
this  selection  both  individuality  and  pedigree  have  been 
considered.  This  selection  has  enabled  the  breeder  to 
favor  and  propagate  desirable  variations  and  to  avoid  the 
more  undesirable  ones.  Natural  selection  has  also  played 
an  important  part  in  the  development  of  breeds  of  swine. 
The  application  of  the  law  of  "the  survival  of  the  fittest" 
proceeds  in  the  domesticated  as  well  as  in  the  wild  state, 
but  in  the  domestic  state  it  comes  nearer  being  "the  sur- 
vival of  the  best,"  since  our  efforts  at  artificial  selection 
are  toward  the  favoring  and  fixing  of  those  tendencies 
of  special  value  to  man.  Thus  the  progress  in  breeding 
swine  is  dependent  on  the  making  of  those  selections  of 
value  to  man,  depending  upon  heredity  to  fix  the  selected 
qualities  or  characteristics. 

17 


18  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

Laws  of  breeding. — From  time  to  time  we  read  or  hear 
of  the  laws  of  breeding.  The  farmer  or  swine  breeder 
desires  to  know  if  he  can  make  use  of  these  to  further  his 
interests.  It  is  certainly  well  for  the  breeder  to  know 
what  progress  has  been  made  in  the  science  of  breeding, 
but  if  it  is  something  very  practical  desired  the  breeder 
had  best  study  the  influence  of  environment,  the  origin, 
history  and  pedigree  of  his  animals,  and  make  special 
effort  toward  breeding  more  prolific  strains  than  to 
trouble  about  infection,  saturation,  maternal  impressions 
and  the  transmission  of  acquired  characters. 

Heredity. — Heredity  embodies  those  characteristics 
which  an  individual  acquires  from  its  parents  through  its 
germ  plasm.  The  laws  of  heredity  are  none  too  well 
understood,  but  it  is  so  universal  in  its  application  and 
has  been  the  basis  of  our  breeding  operations  until  we 
have  accepted  it  as  a  fundamental.  Like  begets  like  has 
been  the  basis  of  all  of  our  improvement  in  breeding. 
Unfortunately,  good  and  bad  characteristics  are  equally 
transmitted,  when  taken  as  a  whole.  Difficulty  is  ex- 
perienced in  placing  a  quantitative  value  on  heredity. 

In  the  case  of  some  characters  we  can  measure  the 
character  accurately,  but  the  animal  does  not  necessarily 
transmit  those  characters  of  its  body,  or  somatic  char- 
acter, by  means  of  its  germ  plasm,  which  we  must  recog- 
nize as  the  sole  carrier  of  hereditary  substance.  Weis- 
mann,  a  famous  investigator,  has  shown  that  the  re- 
productive cells  are  entirely  distinct  and  separate  from 
the  body  or  somatic  cells.  The  germinal  cells  alone  are 
the  carriers  of  the  hereditary  substances,  and  since  these 
are  formed  long  before  the  birth  of  the  animal,  the  im- 
possibility of  inheritance  of  acquired  characters  is  evident. 


PRINCIPLES   OF   SWINE   BREEDING  19 

This  germ  plasm  is  highly  stable  and  independent  of  the 
other  cells  of  the  body,  which  merely  act  as  a  carrier  for 
the  germ  plasm. 

Variations. — One  of  the  fundamental  principles  under- 
lying our  progress  in  breeding  is  that  no  two  animals  are 
alike.  All  are  different.  These  differences  are  referred  to 
as  variations.  They  constitute  to  a  large  extent  our  basis 
of  selection,  and  without  selection  we  would  have  had  no 
improved  breeds  of  swine.  All  variations  are  of  two 
types,  the  inherent  or  congenital  ones,  and  those  pro- 
duced by  environment.  Only  the  inherited  or  congenital 
variations  that  arise  spontaneously  from  the  germ  plasm 
are  inheritable.  Unfortunately,  the  breeder  cannot  al- 
ways distinguish  between  the  inherited  and  acquired 
variations.  Environment  both  magnifies  and  obscures 
inherited  variations,  and  thereby  assists  in  the  making 
of  selections.  Variations  arise  spontaneously  from  the 
germ  plasm,  or  else  they  are  produced  environmentally. 
As  breeders,  we  are  interested  in  both  kinds  of  variations, 
but  primarily,  of  course,  only  in  the  congenital  variations. 

Inheritance  of  acquired  characters. — If  a  pig  is  stunted 
and  as  a  result  develops  a  long  snout  and  small  stature, 
we  would  call  these  acquired  characters.  If  a  pig  has  its 
tail  cut  off,  that  would  be  an  acquired  character.  For  a 
long  time  it  was  considered  that  all  characters  possessed 
by  an  animal  were  inheritable  and  transmissible  to  the 
next  generation.  In  the  light  of  more  recent  science  we 
must  conclude  that  only  those  characters  that  are  con- 
genital and  have  their  origin  in  the  germ  plasm  are 
inheritable. 

Mendelism. — This  is  something  about  which  we  have 
heard  much  in  the  field  of  scientific  breeding,  yet  as  a 


20  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

matter  of  fact  it  has  never  proven  to  have  any  important 
commercial  value.  In  the  past  we  have  always  con- 
sidered that  the  crossing  of  two  distinct  characteristics 
results  in  an  intermediate  character.  This  may  occur  in 
the  first  generation,  but  if  the  characters  are  what  have 
been  referred  to  as  unit  characters  and  Mendelize,  some- 
thing very  strange  happens,  for  instead  of  being  an  inter- 
mediate type  it  will  resemble  more  or  less  one  of  the  two 
original  characters,  and  that  character  or  type  which  it 
resembles  most  is  referred  to  as  the  dominant  character. 
These  first  crosses  are  called  hybrids,  so  far  as  the  par- 
ticular character  being  studied  is  concerned.  If  two 
hybrids  are  crossed  the  characters  may  Mendelize,  or 
break  up,  and  all  of  the  offspring  do  not  have  the  same 
characters,  for  while  about  half  will  resemble  their 
parents,  the  other  half  will  resemble  their  grandparents, 
giving  a  numerical  proportion  of  1:2:1  so  far  as  the 
characters  are  concerned.  This  ratio  is  the  Mendelian 
proportion  stated  in  its  simplest  form. 

Unit  characters. — The  number  of  different  characters 
that  are  susceptible  to  Mendel's  Law  is  unknown.  New 
ones  are  continually  being  worked  out  and  added  to  the 
list.  It  is  assumed  that  most  characters  that  do  not 
Mendelize  are  composed  in  reality  of  several  separate 
characters,  which  makes  it  impossible  to  study  the  segre- 
gation of  the  several  unit  characteristics  of  the  offspring. 
Since  each  character  that  Mendelizes  is  a  unit,  and  since 
no  further  division  of  the  character  is  possible,  the  char- 
acter is  referred  to  as  a  unit  character.  A  great  many 
characteristics  have  been  proven  to  be  unit  characters, 
inherited  according  to  the  laws  discovered  by  Mendel. 

Breeding  the  best  to  the  best. — Since  swine  improve- 
ment first  began,  the  principle  which  has  led  to  the 


PRINCIPLES    OF    SWINE    BREEDING  21 

greatest  success  has  been  the  breeder's  maxim,  "Breed 
the  best  to  the  best."  While  as  a  general  rule  this  is  a 
good  one  to  follow,  and  in  most  instances  is  the  best, 
there  are  instances  where  it  will  result  in  failure.  If  the 
breed  is  pure  as  to  origin  the  results  may  prove  satisfac- 
tory, but  if  the  origin  of  the  breed  has  been  complex,  and 
especially  if  the  breed  is  of  recent  origin,  the  practice  of 
breeding  the  best  to  the  best  may  yield  a  high  per  cent 


Proper  feeding  must  accompany  breeding.     Courtesy  of  E.  J. 
McCall  of  Louisiana. 

of  failures.  This  is  easily  understood  when  we  consider 
that  if  a  breed  is  pure  there  is  a  variation  around  one 
mean  only,  while  when  the  breed  is  complex  as  to  origin 
and  is  made  up  of  several  types,  the  variations  tend  to 
cluster  around  several  means,  and  marked  reversions  too 
often  accompany  crossing  of  members  of  the  breed  that 
appear  similar.  Therefore,  while  it  is  fraught  with 
danger  in  some  instances,  about  the  best  we  can  do  is  to 
breed  the  best  to  the  best,  unless  we  have  good  reasons 
for  doing  otherwise. 

Pedigree. — Our  progress  in  swine  breeding  must  be  to 
a  large  extent  based  upon  proper  utilization  of  pedigree 


22  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

or  records  of  ancestry.  Especially  are  pedigrees  im- 
portant in  determining  the  prepotency  of  breeding  swine. 
The  boar  or  sow  possessing  for  several  generations  back 
high-class  individualities  in  their  ancestry  gives  greater 
assurance  of  itself  being  prepotent  over  another  boar  or 
sow  with  equally  as  good  an  individuality,  but  lacking  in 
high-class  individualities  in  their  pedigree.  Our  pedi- 
grees are  dependent  on  the  record  associations,  and  fre- 
quently it  is  impossible  to  trace  the  pedigree  of  swine 
back  for  more  than  twenty  generations. 

Environment. — Environment  is  the  external  factor  of 
food,  climate,  shelter,  etc.,  with  which  an  animal  is  sur- 
rounded. It  is  impossible  to  state  just  the  exact  influence 
that  environment  has  on  animals,  but,  as  a  rule,  it  is 
much  greater  than  one  might  suppose.  The  quality  of 
early  maturity,  a  much  sought  for  character  in  our  im- 
proved swine,  is  greatly  influenced  by  environment. 
This  factor  of  environment  is  very  largely  under  the 
control  of  the  breeder.  With  it  he  can  accomplish  a  great 
deal.  Environment  may  be  as  valuable  as  inheritance, 
and  either  alone  is  valueless.  Since  environment  is 
simply  the  development  of  inherited  traits,  heredity  is 
probably  the  most  important.  The  one  great  value  of 
environment  to  the  breeder  is  that  it  so  magnifies  and 
modifies  the  inherited  traits  as  to  make  minute  variations 
between  individuals  discernible,  so  that  selections  can  be 
made  with  a  considerable  degree  of  reliability. 

Inbreeding. — Inbreeding  consists  in  the  mating  of 
rather  closely  related  individuals  that  possess  desirable 
characteristics,  with  the  object  of  fixing  or  stamping  the 
type  into  the  offspring.  When  carried  too  far,  or  when 
the  crossing  is  too  radical,  a  loss  of  size,  vigor  and  fer- 
tility occurs,  accompanied  by  a  strong  tendency  for  the 


PRINCIPLES   OF   SWINE    BREEDING  23 

occurrence  of  malformations  of  various  sorts.  The  re- 
sults of  inbreeding  are  different  with  different  strains  and 
breeds.  That  inbreeding  has  a  place  in  our  breeding 
practice  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  it  has  been  freely 
made  use  of  in  the  formation  of  practically  all  of  our 
improved  breeds  of  swine.  In  the  hands  of  the  right 
man  it  can  be  used  to  good  advantage. 

Line  breeding. — This  is  a  term  that  is  applied  to  one  of 
the  methods  often  employed  by  breeders  to  fix  a  certain 
type  or  character  on  their  animals.  Most  breeders  of 
pure-bred  hogs  are  line  breeders,  for  they  endeavor  to 
breed  along  a  certain  line.  Line  breeding  resembles  in- 
breeding, but  it  is  not  so  drastic.  It  has  virtually  the 
same  effects  as  inbreeding  in  fixing  characters  and  estab- 
lishing types,  but  it  acts  slower.  As  in  inbreeding,  it 
may  result  in  loss  of  vigor,  size  and  fertility  when  carried 
out  without  using  sufficient  judgment.  Line  breeding 
has  the  opposite  effect  from  cross-breeding.  In  practice 
it  consists  of  the  continued  use  of  the  blood  of  some  par- 
ticular individual  or  strain  of  individuals  in  trying  to 
stamp  or  fix  a  certain  character  into  the  herd.  This 
method  of  improvement  also  has  its  drawbacks,  for  while 
we  are  establishing  some  good  characteristics  we  may 
also  be  fixing  and  magnifying  undesirable  qualities. 
Good  examples  of  this  are  seen  in  those  extremely  well- 
bred  animals  that  in  reality  do  not  have  the  individuality 
to  merit  registration.  Nevertheless,  in  spite  of  its  Draw- 
backs, our  most  successful  breeders  have  made  free  use 
of  it.  At  present  it  is  about  the  quickest  way  we  have  to 
magnify  and  fix  a  character.  The  main  thing  is  in  know- 
ing the  character  and  in  realizing  its  value,  and  to  have 
the  courage  and  conviction  to  stick  to  the  character  once 
it  is  known. 


24  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

Cross-breeding. — Strictly  speaking,  by  cross-breeding 
we  refer  to  the  crossing  of  two  different  breeds,  yet  from 
the  standpoint  of  breeding  it  may  refer  to  the  crossing  of 
different  types  or  strains.  This  crossing  is  often  made 
use  of  in  our  breeding  operations  where  increased  size, 


Successful  swine  breeding  is   dependent  on  the  reproductive 
process.    Courtesy  Joe  R.  Martin  of  Georgia. 

vigor,  thrift  and  fertility  are  sought.  Many  highly  bred 
females  will  not  conceive  to  their  kind,  and  a  different 
strain  must  be  used.  While,  of  course,  there  are  advan- 
tages to  be  gained  by  cross-breeding,  it  is  not  without 
disadvantages.  It  always  results  in  more  or  less  in- 
stability, and  one  cannot  foretell  with  what  success  the 
cross  is  being  made.  For  this  reason  it  is  better  to  always 
make  moderate  crosses  only,  for  radical  crosses  more 
often  result  unsatisfactorily,  the  instability  of  type 
probably  running  several  generations  before  being 
re-established. 

The  reproductive  process. — In  order  that  a  breeder  may 
carry  on  his  work  with  intelligence,  he  should  become 


PRINCIPLES   OF    SWINE   BREEDING  25 

first  well  informed  on  the  general  principles  of  biology 
that  underlie  reproduction.  He  cannot  appreciate  the 
importance  of  heredity,  the  necessity  of  selection  and  the 
value  of  variation  until  he  does  this.  To  understand 
these  principles  he  must  first  appreciate  the  cell  and  the 
part  it  plays  in  the  animal  kingdom.  He  must  look  upon 
the  cell  as  the  biological  unit.  He  must  know  what  cells 
are,  how  they  act,  and  why  they  are  so  important.  He 
must  know  something  of  cell  structure,  functions  and 
processes. 

The  cell. — The  entire  body  of  any  animal  is  made  up  of 
cells.  These  cells  may  partake  of  a  variety  of  shapes  and 
functions.  In  the  simplest  form  it  consists  of  a  mass  of 
protoplasm  with  a  nucleus,  with  the  whole  inclosed  in  a 
cell  wall.  Within  this  cell  absorption,  assimilation, 
growth  and  reproduction  take  place.  The  reproductive 
function  is  of  greatest  importance,  since  the  process  of 
growth  and  production  of  the  animal  is  dependent  on 
cell  division.  The  process  of  cell  division  is  quite  com- 
plicated. The  somatic  cells,  or  body  cells,  are  being 
built  up  and  destroyed  continuously,  but  the  reproductive 
or  germinal  cells  live  from  the  time  the  animal  is  con- 
ceived until  they  are  expelled,  or  until  the  animal  dies. 
Therefore,  the  breeder  should  look  upon  the  animal  as 
made  up  of  millions  of  units,  and  before  the  entire  animal 
can  be  understood  the  functions  and  process  of  the  in- 
dividual units  must  be  understood  and  appreciated. 

The  male  germ  cell  (spermatozoon). — This  cell  origi- 
nates in  the  germinal  cells  in  the  testicle.  After  several 
divisions,  they  are  fully  developed  spermatozoa,  and  pass 
from  the  testicle  as  mobile  cells,  consisting  of  a  head, 
which  contains  the  nucleus,  a  neck,  and  mobile  tail.  This 


26  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

cell  passes  to  the  female  organs  and  is  attracted  to  the 
female  germ  cells,  with  fertilization  as  the  result. 

Female  germ  cell  (ovum). — These  cells  originate  in  the 
ovary  in  a  manner  somewhat  similar  to  the  way  in  which 
the  spermatozoa  originate.  The  cell  is  very  large.  Each 
of  these  cells,  as  a  rule,  unites  with  one  spermatozoon  to 
develop  into  the  embryo  from  which  a  pig  comes.  In 
some  instances  a  fertilized  ovum  may  split  and  two  pigs 
may  result  from  the  same  cell,  but  more  often  each  pig 
comes  from  a  separate  ovum  after  it  has  united  with  a 
spermatozoon.  This  cell  is  not  mobile,  but  it  gravitates 
from  the  ovary  to  the  uterus  by  the  oviduct  or  the 
Fallopian  tube. 

Fertilization  of  ovum. — The  female  cells  travel  toward 
the  uterus,  and  the  sperm  cell  travels  about  in  the  uterus 
and  may  go  up  the  Fallopian  tube  to  meet  the  female  cell 
to  which  it  is  attracted.  When  the  two  cells  meet,  the 
male  cell  enters  the  female  cell,  leaving  his  tail  behind, 
with  the  result  that  the  two  nuclei  of  the  germ  cell 
coalesce  to  start  the  process  of  cell  division  which  results 
in  the  embryo  from  which  the  pig  comes.  Since  the 
hereditary  material  of  an  animal  is  carried  in  its  germ 
plasm,  the  offspring  partakes  of  the  characters  of  both 
parents. 

Pregnancy. — When  the  male  germ  cell  unites  with  the 
female  cell  the  result  is  a  pregnancy.  The  pregnancy 
extends  until  parturition.  When  a  sow  becomes  preg- 
nant it  is  indicated  by  (1)  cessation  of  periods  of  heat, 
(2)  change  in  disposition,  (3)  tendency  to  fatten,  (4)  en- 
largement of  the  abdomen,  (5)  and  in  the  later  stages  by 
sinking  of  loins,  congestion  of  udder  and  external 
genitals. 


PRINCIPLES    OF    SWINE    BREEDING  27 

Reversion,  or  atavism. — Breeders  frequently  have 
animals  appear  in  their  herds  that  are  unlike  their  parents 
or  any  near  ancestor,  but  they  seem  to  resemble  some  of 
the  older  types  of  animals  from  which  the  breed  origi- 
nated. These  variations  are  referred  to  as  reversions, 
and  the  tendency  to  revert  is  spoken  of  as  atavism.  The 
tendency  to  revert  is  constant,  and  it  seems  that  the 
higher  bred  and  more  specialized  our  types  become,  the 
more  subject  they  are  to  reversion.  It  seems  that  even 
through  most  extensive  breeding  we  cannot  escape  the 
influences  of  atavism.  Especially  does  atavism  manifest 
itself  when  two  different  strains  are  crossed,  or  when  the 
animals  are  placed  under  different  or  adverse  conditions. 
Usually  these  reversions  are  undesirable  in  breeding,  but 
those  reversions  resulting  from  changed  environmental 
conditions  can  be  controlled  to  some  extent.  Those 
atavisms  that  are  congenital  are  beyond  our  control  and 
use.  Therefore,  the  further  we  advance  in  our  swine 
breeding  the  greater  will  be  the  efforts  required  to  main- 
tain what  we  have  produced  up  to  the  attained  standard. 

Superfoetation  and  superfecundation. — This  is  an  ab- 
normal condition  resulting  from  a  pregnant  sow  con- 
ceiving during  a  pregnancy.  They  sometimes  will  come 
in  heat  while  pregnant,  and  if  served  may  conceive. 
This  condition  is  rare,  however.  It  also  may  happen 
that  during  a  period  of  heat  a  sow  may  be  served  by  more 
than  one  boar,  with  the  result  that  she  may  have  pigs  in 
the  same  litter  by  both.  Such  a  condition  is  referred  to 
as  superfecundation.  It  will  occur  often  where  the 
opportunity  is  presented. 

Fecundity. — Fecundity  of  swine  refers  to  their  pro- 
lificacy, or  their  ability  to  produce  young  in  abundance. 


28  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

Fecundity  is  determined  to  a  very  large  extent  by  en- 
vironmental conditions,  such  as  exercise,  confinement, 
climate,  food  supply,  and  season;  in  addition,  it  is  in- 
fluenced by  such  factors  as  age,  size,  condition,  disease 
and  health,  constitution  and  conformation.  The  most 
common  causes  of  a  low  fecundity  are  lack  of  exercise 
and  too  high  a  condition.  As  to  age,  usually  the  number 
of  pigs  in  the  first  litter  is  less  than  the  number  in  the 
next  few  litters;  then,  after  five  or  six  years  of  rather 
heavy  production,  there  is  a  more  or  less  gradual,  some- 
times rapid,  decline,  until  the  breeding  powers  cease,  at 
about  ten  years,  a  few  remaining  active  breeders  beyond 
this  age.  Of  course,  the  higher  producing  sows  are  more 
desirable.  Even  though  under  the  most  favorable  con- 
ditions natural  selection  will  assist  materially  in  weeding 
out  the  poorer  breeders,  care  should  always  be  taken 
in  the  making  of  selections  of  breeding  animals  to  choose 
only  those  animals  coming  from  large  litters. 

Determination  of  sex. — Rules  for  the  control  of  sex 
seem  to  have  always  existed,  and  they  still  flourish. 
Thousands  of  theories  have  been  propounded,  and  all 
have  failed  to  survive  the  tests  of  time. 

The  hog  breeder. — To  be  a  successful  hog  breeder  one 
must  have  a  high-class  breeding  herd  and  yet  be  able  to 
produce  each  year  individuals  that  are  an  improvement 
over  their  parents.  This  requires  a  man  of  more  than 
ordinary  ability  and  skill.  He  must  of  necessity  give  his 
work  great  thought.  He  should  know  the  demands  of  the 
market  and  breed  accordingly.  The  known  laws  of 
breeding  should  be  utilized.  Men  capable  of  becoming 
successful  hog  breeders  are  few,  especially  as  compared 
with  those  who  would  make  successful  producers  ol 


PRINCIPLES   OF    SWINE    BREEDING 


29 


market  hogs.  Above  all,  the  true  swine  breeder  must 
appreciate  the  principles  of  breeding,  and  he  should  study 
and  apply  the  established  laws  of  breeding  to  his 
operations. 

Breeding  conditions  in  the  South. — The  breeding  of 
pure-bred  swine  has  never  become  an  established  prac- 


This  type  is  on  the  increase  in   many  sections  of  the    South. 
Courtesy  Dr.  R.  Thor  Weaver  of  Florida. 

tice  in  the  greater  part  of  the  South  as  it  has  in  the  Corn 
Belt.  But  comparatively  few  pure-bred  herds  are  main- 
tained in  the  South  below  the  southern  Tennessee  line, 
yet  within  recent  years  there  has  been  a  decided  tend- 
ency for  the  more  progressive  breeders  to  grow  regis- 
tered animals.  The  result  has  been  a  rather  rapid  im- 


30  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

provement  in  numbers  and  quality  of  swine.  For  many 
years  past,  of  course,  the  cotton  industry  has  predomi- 
nated, but  it  is  rapidly  becoming  recognized  that  a 
system  of  live  stock  farming  is  essential  to  a  permanent 
system  of  cotton  production,  and  that  the  total  cotton 
production  can  be  greatly  increased  by  the  proper  intro- 
duction of  a  system  of  swine  husbandry. 

Proportion  of  pure-bred  swine. — In  the  southern  states 
there  are  approximately  20,000,000  head  of  hogs.  Of 
these  there  are  much  less  than  20,000  pure  bred  and 
registered  that  are  used  in  improving  and  increasing  the 
quality  and  quantity  of  hogs.  In  other  words,  there  is 
less  than  one  pure-bred  and  registered  hog  in  the  South 
to  exert  its  influence  in  the  improvement  of  every  1,000 
head  of  grade  and  scrubs.  These  figures  readily  show 
the  present  status  of  the  pure-bred  swine  breeding  in- 
dustry in  the  South,  and  they  bring  out  sharply  the  great 
possibilities  for  improvement.  Especially  do  these  figures 
show  that  the  possibilities  of  pure-bred  swine  business  in 
the  South  are  based  on  sound  principles,  and  that  it  is 
merely  in  its  infancy  in  many  respects. 

The  lack  of  improved  breeding. — While  the  present 
condition  of  our  swine-breeding  industry  in  the  South  is 
far  from  what  it  should  be,  it  is  nevertheless  hopeful.  In 
order  to  correct  and  perfect  conditions  we  must  fully 
appreciate  the  present  status  of  the  industry.  In  the  first 
place,  there  has  been  a  general  lack  of  infusion  of  good 
blood.  In  the  second  place,  what  pure  blood  has  been 
used  has  been  indiscriminatingly  mixed  with  other  blood 
and  has  not  been  conserved.  Thirdly,  grade  and  scrub 
boars  have  been  indiscriminately  and  promiscuously 
used.  And,  fourth,  inferior  pedigreed  boars  have  been 


PRINCIPLES    OF    SWINE    BREEDING  31 

used  as  sires  where  they  should  have  been  sent  to  the 
pork  barrel.  One  of  the  most  regrettable  sights  is  to  see 
a  scrub  boar  masquerading  under  a  pedigree  heading  the 
herd  of  a  would-be  breeder,  who  knows  no  better  than  to 
assume  that,  because  his  boar  is  registered,  he  is  fit  to 
head  a  herd. 

Better  blood  always  needed. — In  all  of  our  swine- 
breeding  operations  there  is  one  thing  that  must  be  con- 
stantly borne  in  mind,  and  that  is  that  there  is  always 
need  for  improved  blood.  The  aim  of  the  breeder  should 
always  be  to  produce  something  better.  With  all  of  the 
effort  that  will  ever  be  directed  toward  improvement, 
there  will  always  be  room  for  more.  That  stage  in  swine 
breeding  will  never  be  attained  at  which  no  further  effort 
will  be  needed  to  maintain  the  perfection  of  the  breeds. 
This  is  in  a  measure  due  to  the  fact  that  there  is  a  con- 
stant tendency  for  an  improved  strain  or  breed  to  revert 
to  an  original  type,  and  the  higher  the  specialization  and 
the  nearer  perfection  we  approach  the  greater  will  be  the 
effort  required  to  maintain,  much  less  improve,  the  breeds 
of  swine. 

Co-operative  swine  breeding. — Of  late  we  have  heard 
considerable  of  co-operative  dairy  and  beef  cattle  breed- 
ing associations.  There  is  no  reason  why  the  same  prin- 
ciple would  not  apply  to  swine  breeding.  In  general, 
the  plan  would  be  for  a  community  of  farmers  interested 
in  a  particular  breed  of  swine  to  form  an  association, 
binding  themselves  by  an  agreement  to  advance  the 
interests  of  the  chosen  breed.  They  would  agree  to  use 
nothing  but  pure-bred  and  registered  boars  and  sows,  as 
each  member  might  choose.  The  plan  would  be  for  the 
boars  to  be  purchased  by  the  association  from  the  best 


32  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

breeders  after  they  had  been  passed  on  by  a  capable 
judge.  These  boars  would  then  be  distributed  among 
the  different  breeders,  to  be  used  until  such  a  time  as  in- 
breeding might  result,  when  an  exchange  of  boars  would 
be  made.  This  exchange  is  then  made  without  additional 
expense  to  the  breeders,  and  an  entirely  new  boar  is 
received.  By  this  method  the  most  valuable  boar  would 
soon  be  recognized  by  his  pigs,  and  these  pigs  could  be 
used  for  general  improvement.  Another  great  advantage 
of  such  an  association  would  come  through  the  attraction 
of  buyers  of  swine  for  pork  and  breeding  purposes. 
Such  an  association,  if  of  sufficient  size,  could  afford  a 
sales  agent  to  do  nothing  else  but  make  sales. 

County  swine  breeders'  associations. — In  forming  co- 
operative breeding  associations  the  county  can  frequently 
be  most  conveniently  made  the  unit,  especially  where  the 
counties  have  farm  demonstration  agents  or  similar 
officers.  Under  such  conditions  the  formation  of  an  asso- 
ciation is  very  desirable  and  should  be  encouraged, 
especially  in  every  county  where  the  swine  interests  are 
sufficiently  large  to  justify  its  existence.  The  chief  aims 
of  such  an  association  should  be  the  promotion  of  better 
breeding,  better  methods  of  selling  and  better  and  more 
profitable  swine  husbandry  in  general.  Several  county 
swine  breeders'  associations  are  already  in  existence,  and 
the  county  as  a  unit  has  generally  proven  more  effective 
than  larger  and  more  scattered  units. 

Pure-bred  swine  breeding  as  a  business. — But  very  few 
swine  breeders  have  attained  wealth  through  their  swine- 
breeding  operations.  The  requirements  for  success  in 
this  business  are  as  exacting  as  in  any  other  business, 
and  the  infinite  amount  of  painstaking  work  and  attention 


PRINCIPLES    OF    SWINE    BREEDING  33 

required  is  such  that  success  is  possible  with  but  remark- 
ably few  men.  Less  than  ten  per  cent  of  those  who  enter 
the  business  remain  in  it  longer  than  ten  years  and  make 
what  would  ordinarily  be  called  a  success. 

Future  of  pure-bred  swine  business. — The  pure-bred 
swine  business  is  at  the  very  foundation  of  our  entire 
pork-producing  industry.  Naturally,  as  in  the  past,  the 
pure-bred  herds  will  be  called  on  in  the  future  more  and 
more  to  improve  our  pork-producing  herds  and  maintain 
the  perfection  which  has  already  been  attained.  The 
necessity  of  a  liberal  use  of  pure  blood  is  recognized  by 
pork  producers,  and  the  outlook  for  pure-bred  swine  is 
good,  to  say  the  least.  A  careful  review  of  the  pork 
industry  in  southern  states  in  general  will  show  that  there 
is  a  very  profitable  future  near  at  hand  for  producers  of 
pure-bred  swine  of  the  right  sort. 

Pure-bred  swine  business  looks  tempting. — Far  too 
many  men  enter  the  pure-bred  swine  business  with  inade- 
quate capital  and  experience,  and  they  are  unwilling  to 
give  the  business  the  time  and  care  it  demands,  which,  of 
course,  means  ultimate  failure.  True,  all  breeders  who 
have  accomplished  anything  to  be  proud  of  have  only 
done  so  after  failures  and  disappointments,  but  these  dis- 
appointments would  be  fewer  if  we  took  greater  precau- 
tions in  starting. 

Number  of  hogs  to  grow. — The  number  of  hogs  which 
one  can  conveniently  and  profitably  produce  will  depend 
to  a  great  extent  on  the  factor  of  food  supply.  Therefore, 
in  the  contemplation  of  swine  production,  one  of  the  first 
considerations  should  be  that  of  available  food  supply. 
This  will,  of  course,  depend  on  the  feeds  and  the  quanti- 
ties which  one  expects  to  feed.  A  probably  easier  method 


34  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

of  calculating  is  to  place  the  number  of  hogs  on  the  acre 
basis,  since  any  system  of  swine  production  in  the  South 
will  largely  depend  on  the  growing  and  grazing  of  pasture 
crops.  While  single  acres  have  been  known  to  produce 
with  one  crop  upwards  of  1,400  pounds  of  pork,  a  fair 
average  would  be  somewhere  between  250  and  500 
pounds,  depending  on  the  fertility.  If  the  land  is  fertile, 
one  could  therefore  produce  annually  an  average  of  four 
head  per  acre  that  would  average  from  100  to  150  pounds 
per  head.  If  the  land  is  very  fertile,  it  may  provide  feed 
for  more  than  this,  but  the  most  of  the  land,  especially  in 
the  start,  will  provide  feed  for  a  smaller  number. 

The  boar  breeder. — There  are  a  great  many  breeders  of 
pure-bred  swine  who  make  it  a  business  to  breed  pure- 
bred boars  to  supply  the  needs  of  farmers  and  other 
breeders.  Such  a  breeder  is  forced  to  breed  animals  to 
meet  the  demands  of  the  pork  market,  although  he  may 
never  send  animals  to  the  market.  It  therefore  behooves 
him  to  thoroughly  inform  himself  on  what  the  market 
demands,  for  the  boars  he  sells  must  be  capable  of  siring 
the  type  the  market  desires.  While  fashionable  pedigrees 
are  desirable,  market  type  and  superior  individuality  are 
more  desirable,  and  those  breeders  who  breed  on  pedigree 
alone  and  who  ignore  the  demands  of  the  market  and 
show  ring  will  sooner  or  later  lack  buyers  for  their  boars. 
The  necessity  of  basing  all  of  our  swine-breeding  opera- 
tions on  the  utility  basis  becomes  continually  more  and 
more  apparent. 

Breeding  for  pork. — The  aim  should  be  to  produce  only 
the  type  most  sought  after,  for,  as  a  general  rule,  those 
hogs  that  bring  the  higher  prices  have  been  most  profit- 
able to  their  owners.  Not  only  must  the  selections  be 


PRINCIPLES   OF    SWINE    BREEDING  35 

based  upon  the  demands  of  the  market,  but  the  owner 
must  figure  profits  closely  on  each  animal.  Above  all,  the 
individuals  should  be  the  quick-growing  kind,  with  a  good 
constitution  and  a  natural  heavy  fleshing.  They  should 
show  their  breeding  and  give  evidences  of  their 
superiority.  The  blocky,  compact,  low-set  animal  most 
nearly  conforming  to  the  ideal  pork  type  should  be 
sought. 

Always  use  a  pure-bred  sire. — There  is  one  rule  that  is 
applicable  to  all  forms  of  swine-breeding  industry  that 
should  never  be  disregarded.  This  is  to  use  always  a 
pure-bred  sire,  regardless  of  the  objects  sought,  whether 
the  aims  be  to  produce  animals  for  breeding  purposes  or 
for  market.  We  frequently  find  grade  individuals  of 
marked  excellence  that  are  considered  good  enough  to 
head  a  herd,  but  in  most  cases  the  resultant  offspring  in 
the  first  generation  will  show  marked  traces  of  the 
inferior  breeding. 

Continually  grade  up. — One  thing  that  will  have  to 
be  borne  constantly  in  mind  by  all  breeders  is  that  there 
is  always  a  necessity  to  select  and  breed  up  continually, 
even  though  no  improvement  may  be  sought.  This  is 
necessary  if  we  are  to  maintain  the  excellence  of  our 
animals.  The  condition  is  just  as  true,  or  more  so,  with 
a  pure-bred  herd  than  with  a  market  herd.  This  results 
from  the  fact  that  the  higher  bred  and  specialized  our 
swine  are,  the  greater  the  effort  to  maintain  that  breeding 
and  specialization.  This  tendency  to  reversion  to  an 
inferior  type  is  constant,  and  calls  for  a  constant  effort 
at  improvement  which  cannot  be  ignored. 

Breeding  for  type. — In  all  breeding  operations  the  ideal 
must  be  kept  constantly  in  mind,  and  all  efforts  must 


36  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

have  one  aim — to  secure  that  type.  If  one  is  selecting  an 
ideal  grazing  type  of  hog,  he  must  know  what  constitutes 
an  ideal  grazer.  In  breeding  for  a  special  type,  ancestry 
must  be  given  due  consideration.  Individuals  possessing 
the  desired  type,  but  with  different  ancestry,  may  give 
the  desired  results.  On  the  other  hand,  the  selection  of 
individuals  with  ancestry  conforming  to  the  desired  type, 
and  as  nearly  similar  in  characteristics  as  possible,  might 
accomplish  results  quicker.  Less  variation  in  type  is  apt 
to  result  when  ancestry  of  similar  characteristics  are  used, 
and  the  desired  type  may  be  fixed  in  the  offspring  much 
quicker  than  where  the  types  involved  in  the  offspring 
varied  greatly. 

Type. — Type  is  a  generic  term  applied  to  those  groups 
of  swine  of  similar  size,  conformation  and  utility.  These 
various  types  have  been  evolved  to  meet  certain  demands 
for  swine,  with  certain  qualifications.  The  result  is  that 
each  breed  has  its  own  special  peculiarities  which  are  not 
found  in  the  individuals  of  other  breeds  in  the  same  pro- 
portions. These  characters  grouped  together  are  re- 
ferred to  as  ''breed  type."  In  a  general  way  the  several 
breeds  of  swine,  therefore,  are  naturally  classed  or 
grouped  into  certain  classes,  dependent  upon  their  char- 
acteristics. Thus  we  have  the  lard  type  of  swine,  in 
which  there  are  several  breeds.  These  swine  have  strong 
propensities  for  fattening,  and  their  carcasses  yield  a 
large  amount  of  fat  or  lard.  In  the  same  way  we  have  the 
bacon  types  of  swine,  which  are  inclined  to  make  lean 
meat  rather  than  fat. 

Breed  for  utility. — All  breeding  for  improvement  must 
be  based  upon  utilitarian  lines  in  order  to  be  justifiable. 
This  is  the  prime  requisite  for  a  successful  breeder,  and 


PRINCIPLES   OF    SWINE    BREEDING  37 

all  successful  breeders  have  made  utility  the  basis  of  their 
operations  and  the  goal  of  their  efforts.  The  real  value  of 
any  meat  animal  depends  upon  its  ability  to  convert  the 
products  of  the  farm  that  are  unfit  for  human  food  into 
something  that  is  edible.  Its  ability  to  do  this  most 
economically  determines  its  relative  earning  capacity  to 
its  owner.  Of  course,  fashionable  pedigree,  color  mark- 


m 


Utility  should  be  the  basis  of  all  breeding  operations.    Courtesy 
E.  C.  Mclnniss  of  Mississippi. 

ings  and  fads  may  be  given  some  consideration,  but 
utility  should  never  be  sacrificed  for  any  of  these  to  the 
least  extent.  While  formerly  some  of  the  show  ring 
judges  failed  to  recognize  these  cardinal  principles,  they 
are  now  fully  appreciated,  and  the  animal  that  indicates 
having  brought  the  greatest  profit  to  its  owner  is  gener- 
ally given  first  consideration. 

Breeding  for  utility  involves  pedigree  and  individuality. 

— Some  breeders  are  inclined  to  place  too  much  emphasis 
on  the  fancy  side  and  forget  the  practical,  while  others 
place  too  much  emphasis  on  the  practical  side  and  totally 


38  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

ignore  pedigree  and  blood  lines.  What  we  should  aim 
for  is  a  middle  ground,  which  alone  can  be  the  basis  of 
real  utility.  The  middle  ground  takes  note  of  not  only 
breeding  and  blood  lines,  but  of  individual  merit  and  suit- 
ability for  breeding  purposes.  For  the  beginner,  this  is  a 
hard  ground  to  take.  He  knows  that  the  pedigrees  are 
the  tabulated  record  of  the  ancestry  of  the  individual,  and 
only  guarantee  ancestry,  whether  they  be  good  or  bad. 
A  good  pedigree  would,  of  course,  contain  a  large  number 
of  individuals  possessing  high  merit. 

Pure-bred  hogs  for  farmers. — Many  farmers  are  of  the 
opinion  that  pure-bred  swine  are  for  the  rich  and  gentle- 
men farmers  only,  and  that  they  are  not  suited  for  aver- 
age farm  use,  as  they  lack  constitution  and  cannot  main- 
tain themselves  under  average  farm  conditions.  In  the 
latter  assumption  they  are  partly  correct,  but  it  is  due  to 
no  fault  of  the  swine.  What  the  farmer  wants  is  an 
animal  that  will  make  pork  and  make  it  cheaply,  and  that 
is  what  pure-bred  or  high-grade  animals  will  do.  In  the 
selection  of  breeding  animals  the  farmer  can  do  no  better 
than  to  select  a  pure-bred  boar  and  either  pure-bred  or 
high-grade  sows,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  they  may  seem 
to  cost  a  little  more  to  start  with,  for  the  advantages  of 
type,  early  maturity  and  economy  of  production  soon  out- 
weigh any  extra  original  cost.  Scrubs  and  unimproved 
animals  are,  of  course,  adapted  to  some  farming  methods, 
but  if  a  farmer  is  equipped  for  pork  production  at  all,  and 
desires  steady  profits,  he  should  consider  no  other  breed- 
ing animals  than  pure  breds  or  high  grades. 

Cross-breds. — The  term  "cross-bred"  is  used  somewhat 
more  loosely  than  the  term  "pure  bred."  Some  authori- 
ties state  it  is  used  to  designate  that  an  individual  is  the 


PRINCIPLES   OF    SWINE    BREEDING  39 

offspring  of  parents  from  different  breeds,  and  that  it  is 
not  necessary  that  the  parents  be  pure  bred,  but  they 
must  be  very  high  grade.  Others  state  that  an  animal  is 
a  cross-bred  when  the  sire  and  dam  were  both  pure  bred, 
but  belong  to  different  breeds. 

Under  certain  circumstances  it  may  be  well  to  cross 
two  breeds,  but  the  cross  should  never  be  carried  farther 
than  one  generation.  In  the  second  generation  the  tend- 
ency is  for  various  characteristics  to  Mendelize  and  split 
off,  and  the  resultant  great  variation  is  decidedly  detri- 
mental. Therefore,  if  we  do  any  crossing  at  all,  we 
•should  not  carry  it  farther  than  the  first  generation.  It 
is  true  that  swine  breeders  and  pork  growers  in  general 
attach  great  value  to  crossing  breeds,  claiming  greater 
vigor,  quicker  maturity  and  larger  and  stronger  bone. 
These  advantages  are  to  a  large  extent  only  apparent, 
and  experimental  evidence  shows  the  advantages  to  be 
so  slight  as  not  to  justify  the  crossing  as  a  regular  prac- 
tice. Breeds  should  only  be  crossed,  therefore,  when  hogs 
are  to  be  grown  for  the  market.  Most  any  breed  will 
cross  up  well  with  other  breeds,  but  crossing  is  usually 
not  advisable,  and  should  only  be  carried  out  under 
exceptional  circumstances. 

Prepotency  of  pure-bred  boars. — Pure-bred  boars  seem 
to  possess  a  certain  prepotency  and  ability  to  stamp  their 
type  that  is  not  possessed  by  scrub  or  grade  boars.  This 
is  very  much  in  evidence  where  a  pure-bred  boar  is  used 
on  a  few  native  sows,  in  which  the  pigs  of  the  first  gener- 
ation are  apparently  almost  full  blooded.  This  ability  to 
stamp  type  on  the  offspring  is  not  possessed  by  the  scrub. 
This  characteristic  of  pure-bred  swine  is  undoubtedly  due 
to  long  and  continued  line  inheritance  as  a  result  of 
selection.  The  type  of  the  pure  bred  we  might  say  is 


40  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

dominant,  while  that  of  the  scrub  is  recessive.  This 
means  that  the  type  of  the  pure-bred  animal  is  inherited 
and  can  be  implanted  on  those  swine  not  now  possessing 
pure-bred  type.  In  this  connection  the  fact  must  not 
be  lost  sight  of  that  the  superiority  of  the  pure  bred  over 
the  scrub  is  not  alone  in  breeding,  for  a  pure-bred  animal 
when  starved  soon  takes  on  a  great  many  characteristics 
of  the  scrub  animal,  and  the  well  fed  up  scrub  can  be 


Litter  mates;    one  fed  by  a  pig  club  boy  and  the  other  by  his 
father.    Courtesy  W.  W.  Browder  of  Kentucky. 

made  to  partake  of  some  of  the  characteristics  of  the  pure- 
bred type.  This  shows  that  breeding  and  feeding  must 
go  hand  in  hand,  and  further  indicates  the  better  and 
more  economical  use  to  which  a  pure-bred  animal  puts 
his  food  than  does  the  scrub. 

Why  pure-bred  swine  seem  expensive. — When  full- 
grown  hogs  are  selling  at  from  $25  to  $50  per  head,  it 
seems  to  the  inexperienced  that  $25  for  a  registered  boar 
pig  is  a  very  liberal  price.  While  this  may  seem  an  ex- 
cessive figure  to  pay  for  a  pure-bred  boar  pig,  it  is  not. 
Pure-bred  swine  of  the  right  kind  cannot  be  grown  as 
cheaply  as  scrubs,  for  they  must  be  better  fed  and  cared 
for  in  order  to  be  in  salable  condition,  and  the  trouble 
and  costs  of  keeping  up  registrations  is  no  small  item  of 


PRINCIPLES   OF    SWINE    BREEDING  41 

expense.  The  trouble  is  that  too  many  look  at  the  first 
cost  alone.  Twenty-five  dollars  is  not  an  unreasonable 
price  to  pay  for  a  registered  pig  to  make  a  herd  header 
of,  and  a  sire  selected  at  $75  to  $100  would  probably  be 
far  more  profitable  in  the  long  run  than  a  cheaper  one. 
The  additional  value  placed  upon  each  pig  in  the  first 
crop  generally  much  more  than  pays  the  difference  be- 
tween a  cheap  or  scrub  sire  and  a  good,  pure-bred  one. 

Swine-breeding  terms. — Before  one  can  intelligently 
understand  the  underlying  principles  of  swine  breeding, 
it  is  necessary  that  he  familiarize  himself  with  certain 
terms  that  are  met  with  more  or  less  frequently  in  dis- 
cussing the  subject.  Among  these  terms  we  frequently 
find  "pure  bred,"  "full  blooded,"  "thoroughbred,"  "cross- 
bred," "high  grade,"  "grade,"  "unimproved,"  "scrub," 


Pure  bred. — Used  synonymously,  but  erroneously,  with 
the  term  "pure  bred,"  are  the  terms  "full  blooded"  and 
"thoroughbred."  In  speaking  of  any  phase  of  swine 
breeding  it  is  never  necessary  to  make  use  of  the  latter 
two  terms,  and  their  use  should  be  avoided  as  they  are 
more  or  less  confusing.  In  discussions  on  swine  breeding 
the  term  "pure  bred"  is  probably  met  with  more  fre- 
quently than  any  other  of  the  terms  used.  This  term  is 
applied  to  those  hogs  whose  ancestors  came  from  the 
native  homes  of  the  breeds  in  question  and  conformed  to 
the  requirements  of  the  breed.  The  blood  must  be  pure 
and  the  breeding  and  ancestry  must  be  known  for  several 
generations  back.  An  animal  cannot  be  considered  as  a 
pure  bred  unless  it  is  capable  of  being  registered  in  the 
standard  herd  book  for  the  breed  to  which  it  lays  claim. 
The  advantage  of  a  pure-bred  animal  lies  in  the  fact  that 


42  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

its  ancestors  were  especially  selected  animals,  all  possess- 
ing certain  desirable  characteristics  insisted  upon  by  the 
men  who  founded  and  developed  the  breed. 

Grades. — The  term  "grade"  is  generally  used  in  con- 
junction with  one  of  the  breeds,  as  "grade  Duroc-Jerseys," 
or  "grade  Berkshires."  It  indicates  that  the  animal  has 
one-half  or  more  of  the  blood  of  the  breed  mentioned. 
In  its  use  the  term  "high  grade"  is  closely  related  to  that 
of  "grade."  "High  grades"  are  those  hogs  containing  as 
much  as  seven-eighths  of  the  blood  of  one  of  the  improved 
breeds.  When  an  animal  becomes  a  high  grade  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  tell  it  from  a  pure  bred  by  a  casual 
observation. 

Scrub  swine. — Used  synonymously  with  the  term 
"scrub  swine"  are  "native"  and  "unimproved."  All  of 
these  terms  *.re  applicable  to  those  animals  that  do  not 
carry  more  than  at  least  a  small  amount  of  the  blood  of 
any  of  the  improved  breeds.  They  bear  no  evidence  of 
superior  breeding.  None  of  their  ancestors  were  pure 
bred,  or  at  least  if  they  were  it  is  so  distant  that  none  of 
their  influence  is  manifested  in  the  offspring.  The  term 
"scrub"  may  be,  and  often  is,  applied  to  inferior  swine  of 
any  breeding.  In  general,  the  term  "native"  has  a  little 
broader  application  than  the  other  two  terms,  and  is  often 
used  to  designate  the  swine  of  all  kinds  gathered  up  in  a 
certain  locality. 

Breeding  management  of  a  pork-producing  herd. — To 

start  with,  a  uniform  lot  of  sows  should  be  secured.  The 
breeding  and  degree  of  excellence  of  these  will  be  deter- 
mined by  several  factors.  If  pork  production  alone  is 
desired,  and  high  grades  are  secured,  these  should  have 
indications  of  the  blood  of  one  breed  only.  From  the 


PRINCIPLES   OF   SWINE   BREEDING  43 

same  breed  a  pure-bred  boar  should  be  selected  to  mate 
with  these  sows  in  order  to  secure  a  uniform  lot  of  pigs. 
While  uniformity  of  itself  may  possess  no  real  value,  it 
is  one  of  the  best  paying  investments  to  be  made,  for  it 
generally  costs  little  or  nothing  and  the  market  pays  well 
for  it.  The  selection  of  the  boar  should  be  most  carefully 
made,  regardless  of  the  ultimate  object  of  the  breeding. 
If  grade  sows  are  used  and  pork  is  to  be  produced,  the 
aim  should  be  to  continue  the  grading  up  from  year  to 
year  and  from  boar  to  boar.  Such  breeding  practice  con- 
tinued through  but  a  few  years  will  give  one  a  herd  of 
grade  animals  comparing  quite  favorably  with  pure  breds 
so  far  as  uniformity  of  product  and  resultant  offspring 
are  concerned.  Breeding  for  pork  production  alone  has 
several  distinct  advantages  over  breeding  for  breeding 
purposes,  and  not  the  least  among  these  advantages  is 
the  fact  that  in  the  pork-producing  herd  it  is  necessary  to 
keep  the  breeding  animals  in  as  high  condition  as  in  the 
case  of  the  pure-bred  herd. 

Breeding  condition. — While  we  must  not  forget  the 
necessity  of  keeping  our  breeding  animal  in  high  condi- 
tion, we  must  recognize  the  incompatibility  of  too  high  a 
condition  with  the  best  of  breeding  qualities.  The  best 
results  are  obtained  when  the  animals  are  neither  too  fat 
nor  too  lean,  but  when  they  are  in  what  might  be  con- 
sidered the  most  healthy  condition. 

The  results  of  too  high  condition. — This  danger  of  too 
high  a  condition  in  breeding  animals  is  already  well 
known.  As  to  the  causes,  there  may  be  several,  but  in 
the  cases  of  the  females  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  the  large 
quantities  of  fat  deposited  around  the  internal  repro- 
ductive organs  do  not  make  for  the  best  breeding  quali- 


44  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

ties.  The  excess  of  fat  seems  to  crowd  the  embryos, 
possibly  pressing  against  certain  blood  vessels  and 
nerves,  thereby  cutting  off  a  part  of  the  nutrition  and 
limiting  the  reproductive  functions.  In  addition  to  this, 
very  fat  animals  do  not,  as  a  rule,  take  sufficient  exercise 
to  guarantee  the  most  healthy  condition.  This  applies 
to  the  overfed  boar  as  well  as  to  the  sow.  In  the  boar 
the  factors  of  proper  nutrition  and  blood  supply  to  the 
reproductive  organs  may  also  play  an  important  role. 

Sterility,  or  barrenness. — Many  of  our  high-bred  swine 
are  barren,  or  sterile.  This  is  a  matter  of  vital  importance 
to  the  breeder.  It  is  not  a  trouble  confined  solely  to  one 
sex.  In  the  female  it  may  be  due  to  failure  of  develop- 
ment of  the  ova,  to  diseased  organs,  fatty  degeneration, 
contraction  of  the  cervix  of  the  uterus,  to  acid  discharge 
in  vagina,  weakness  of  the  germ  cells  after  conception, 
lack  of  exercise,  and  to  other  physiological  abnormalities. 
In  the  male,  many  of  these  same  or  paralleled  conditions 
prevail  to  cause  sterility.  Where  the  trouble  is  due  to 
faulty  management,  it  is  the  best  plan  to  see  that  the 
affected  animals  are  allowed  ample  exercise,  that  they 
are  kept  healthy  and  in  good  breeding  condition,  but  not 
too  fat,  and  that  the  sexual  functions  are  not  overworked. 

Number  of  pigs  to  litter. — The  question  of  the  possible 
number  of  pigs  to  the  litter,  the  most  desirable  number 
to  have,  and  the  ways  of  influencing  the  numbers  of  pigs 
in  litters  have  attracted  some  attention  from  breeders. 
In  numbers,  it  is  possible  for  sows  to  have  all  the  way 
from  1  to  24.  The  latter  figure  is  the  number  of  pigs 
farrowed  at  one  time  by  one  of  the  early  sows  in  the 
history  of  the  Poland-China  breed.  This  litter  was  far- 
rowed in  the  herd  of  Chas.  Hankinson,  in  Warren  County, 


PRINCIPLES    OF    SWINE    BREEDING  45 

Ohio,  the  place  of  origin  of  the  breed  mentioned.  The 
average  number  of  pigs  farrowed  is  much  less  than  this, 
of  course,  and  for  no  breed  does  it  exceed  ten  head. 
Most  breeds  will  average  between  six  and  ten  head  to 
the  litter,  the  fat  or  lard  type  of  hogs  generally  farrowing 
the  smaller  numbers.  As  to  the  most  desirable  number 
to  have,  it  is  never  desirable  for  a  sow  to  have  more  pigs 
than  she  has  mammae.  Most  sows  have  13  possible 
functional  mammae.  This  number  is,  however,  too  large, 
and  as  a  rule  ten  is  as  many  pigs  as  one  can  expect  to 
handle  and  care  for  in  one  litter. 

The  number  of  pigs  per  litter  and  their  sex  is  to  a  large 
extent  beyond  our  control.  The  boar  has  but  little  in- 
fluence on  the  number,  and  in  most  cases  it  is  determined 
by  the  sow.  In  attempting  to  correct  troubles  with  defi- 
cient litters,  we  should  first  look  to  the  sow  for  the 
possible  trouble.  A  great  many  swine  breeders  seem 
to  have  the  impression  that  there  are  direct  means 
whereby  the  number  of  pigs  to  the  litter  can  be  increased. 
Such,  however,  is  not  the  case,  and  the  only  thing  that 
can  be  done  is  to  keep  the  sows  and  boars  in  the  best 
breeding  condition.  Above  all,  the  sow  must  not  be  too 
fat,  she  should  be  properly  fed,  her  reproductive  func- 
tions must  not  be  overtaxed,  and  she  should  have  suffi- 
cient exercise  to  give  her  the  best  breeding  condition. 
Practically  the  same  management  should  be  applied  to 
the  boar,  for  at  times  the  small  litters  may  be  due  to  lack 
of  sexual  vigor  and  prepotency  in  the  boar.  With  care 
being  taken  to  see  that  the  boar  and  sow  are  both  kept  in 
the  best  of  breeding  conditions,  one  should  be  able  to 
secure  the  largest  litters  possible  with  the  individuals  at 
hand. 


46  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

Work  done  by  Carlyle1  at  the  Wisconsin  Station  has 
shown  that  there  is  a  direct  relation  between  the  size  of 
the  litter  and  the  size  of  the  sow,  the  larger  sows  having 
the  larger  litters.  The  same  holds  true  for  the  age,  al- 
though to  a  lesser  extent,  and  the  greater  the  age  the 
larger  the  litter,  up  to  certain  limits,  of  course.  These  are 
important  facts  and  should  be  kept  in  mind  by  the 
breeder  desiring  large  litters. 

Color  of  swine. — The  color  of  swine  usually  is  of 
secondary  importance.  Our  pure-bred  swine  are  more 
or  less  constant  in  color,  because  this  was  one  of  the 
easiest  characters  to  establish  in  the  formation  of  the 
breeds.  In  the  case  of  the  wild  types  of  swine,  the  colora- 
tion, while  fairly  constant,  is,  as  a  rule,  variegated  for 
protective  purposes.  The  necessity  of  color  protection 
in  the  case  of  domestic  swine  is  not  present.  Color  in 
swine  has  some  value  in  protection  from  adverse  climatic 
condition.  Most  wild  swine  inhabit  temperate  and  sub- 
tropical climates,  where  sunshine  tends  to  produce  a 
scalding  on  white  swine.  None  of  the  wild  breeds  of 
swine  are  light  in  color. 

Period  of  heat. — When  the  sow  gives  off  germ  cells 
there  are  certain  symptoms  manifested  which,  taken 
collectively,  indicate  the  period  of  heat.  The  external 
genitals  may  become  swollen  and  congested,  and  there 
may  be  a  slight  discharge.  The  mammary  glands  may 
also  become  slightly  congested.  Restlessness  and  change 
of  voice  are  also  manifestations.  These  periods  occur 
with  some  degree  of  regularity.  They  first  appear  in  the 
gilt  in  subdued  or  premature  form  at  about  three  months 
of  age.  After  that,  they  occur  every  twenty-one  days  or 


1  Bulletin  104  Wisconsin  Agr.  Exp.  Station. 


PRINCIPLES    OF    SWINE    BREEDING 


47 


thereabout  until  pregnancy  intervenes,  when  they  cease. 
This  cessation  prevents  superfoetation,  or  double  preg- 
nancy, which  sometimes  occurs  in  cattle  or  horses,  but 
rarely  or  never  in  swine. 


BREEDING  TABLE 


Day  of 
month 

br« 

D 

nfr»  rlii*3 

•  +y%  fst-m 

rV\W  itrVit 

ar»  Vkt*o, 

1  J-n  w,. 

,„«,  ~t 

in 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar.  Apr.  May   June  July  Aug.  Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov.  Dec. 

Apr. 

May 

June 

July 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Feb.  Mar. 

1 

22 

23 

21 

22 

21 

21 

21 

21 

22 

21 

21    23 

2 

23 

24 

22 

23 

22 

22 

22 

22 

23 

22 

22    24 

3 

24 

25 

23 

24 

23 

23 

23 

23 

24 

23 

23    25 

4 

25 

26 

24 

25 

24 

24 

24 

24 

25 

24 

24    26 

5 

26 

27 

25 

26 

25 

25 

25 

25 

26 

25 

25    27 

6 

27 

28 

26 

27 

26 

26 

26 

26 

27 

26 

26    28 

7 

28 

29 

27 

28 

27 

27 

27 

27 

28 

27 

27    29 

8 

29 

30 

28 

29 

28 

28 

28 

28 

29 

28 

28    30 

9 

30 

31 

29 

30 

29 

29 

29 

29 

30 

29  M 

:ar.l    31 

10 

May  1  June  1 

30 

31 

30 

30 

30 

30 

31 

30 

2  Apr.l 

11 

2 

2  July  1  Aug.  1 

31  Oct.  1 

31  Dec.  1  Jan.l 

31 

3     2 

12 

3 

3 

2 

2  Sept.  1 

2  Nov.l 

2 

2  Feb.  1 

4     3 

13 

4 

4 

3 

3 

2 

3 

2 

3 

3 

2 

5     4 

14 

5 

5 

4 

4 

3 

4 

3 

4 

4 

3 

6     5 

16 

6 

6 

5 

5 

4 

5 

4 

5 

5 

4 

7     6 

16 

7 

7 

6 

6 

5 

6 

5 

6 

6 

5 

8     7 

17 

8 

8 

7 

7 

6 

7 

6 

7 

7 

6 

9     8 

18 

9 

9 

8 

8 

7 

8 

7 

8 

8 

7 

10     9 

19 

10 

10 

9 

9 

8 

9 

8 

9 

9 

8 

11    10 

20 

11 

11 

10 

10 

9 

10 

9 

10 

10 

9 

12    11 

21 

12 

12 

11 

11 

10 

11 

10 

11 

11 

10 

13    12 

22 

13 

13 

12 

12 

11 

12 

11 

12 

12 

11 

14    13 

23 

14 

14 

13 

13 

12 

13 

12 

13 

13 

12 

15    14 

24 

15 

15 

14 

14 

13 

14 

13 

14 

14 

13 

16    15 

25 

16 

16 

15 

15 

14 

15 

14 

15 

15 

14 

17    16 

26 

17 

17 

16 

16 

15 

16 

15 

16 

16 

15 

18    17 

27 

18 

18 

17 

17 

16 

17 

16 

17 

17 

16 

19    18 

28 

19 

19 

18 

18 

17 

18 

17 

18 

18 

17 

20    19 

29 

20 

19 

19 

18 

19 

18 

19 

19 

18 

21    20 

30 

21 

20 

20 

19 

20 

19 

20 

20 

19 

22    21 

31 

22 

21 

20 

20 

21 

20 

22 

CHAPTER  III 
BREEDS  OF  SWINE 

Swine  are  plastic. — The  life  history  of  every  species  of 
animal  forms  a  more  or  less  distinct  arc,  which  may  cover 
a  period  of  a  hundred  thousand  or  even  a  million  years. 
Species  of  animals  are  stable  or  plastic,  depending  on 
their  relative  position  on  the  arc  of  the  life  history  of  the 
species.  The  nearer  the  species  is  to  the  starting  point 
of  the  arc,  or,  in  other  words,  the  younger  the  species, 
the  more  plastic  it  is.  At  first  a  species  is  quite  plastic 
and  variations  abound,  and  progress  in  breeding,  whether 
it  be  natural  or  artificial,  is  very  rapid  and  easy.  Later, 
the  inherent  tendencies  of  the  species  carry  it  along  in 
certain  directions,  and  after  a  certain  time  the  charac- 
teristics may  become  so  fixed  that  the  species  may  not 
be  able  to  become  harmonized  with  its  surroundings,  and 
the  result  is  the  extinction  of  the  race  or  species.  The 
swine  species  is,  comparatively  speaking,  near  the  be- 
ginning of  its  arc  of  development.  It  is  quite  plastic  and 
variations  are  numerous.  Breeding  progress  is  com- 
paratively easy  in  the  hands  of  man.  Wild  swine  are 
much  more  constant  in  characteristics  than  are  domestic 
swine,  for  in  the  wild  state  mutations  not  in  accord  with 
nature  are  at  once  eliminated.  Under  domestication,  all 
sorts  of  variations  and  mutations  have  been  preserved 
and  modified,  and  the  result  is  that  we  have  many  types 
of  domesticated  swine  that  are  not  in  harmony  with  their 
surroundings,  which,  of  course,  means  ultimate  loss. 
Therefore,  we  might  conclude,  that,  for  instance,  as  com- 
pared with  horses,  the  formation  and  molding  of  breeds 


BREEDS    OF    SWINE  49 

of  swine  is  comparatively  easy,  and  such  is  the  case, 
although  we  may  not  at  all  times  be  able  to  see  it. 

Original  swine. — The  original  types  of  swine  from 
which  our  present  day  breeds  have  descended  have  been 
the  Sus  Scrofa  and  the  Sus  Cristatus  or  S.  Indicus,  both 
belonging  to  the  species  Suidce.  Nearly  every  part  of 
the  world  has  native  members  of  the  Suidce,  but  so  far 
as  we  know,  only  the  two  above  have  played  an  impor- 
tant role  in  the  formation  of  our  present  day  breeds  of 
swine,  which  may  be  considered  as  having  arisen  by  the 
crossing  of  these  two  strains.  The  Sus  Scrofa  was  the 
native  swine  of  the  British  Isles  and  Europe,  while  the 
5\  Indicus  was  a  native  of  Asia  and  southeastern  Europe. 
These  are  related  to  the  wart  hog  of  Africa,  to  the 
babiroussa  of  the  East  Indies  and  the  peccary  of  Central 
and  South  America.  The  Sus  Scrofa  was  a  very  large, 
coarse  animal,  measuring  often  over  three  feet  in  height, 
of  a  dark  gray  color  with  the  young  more  or  less  striped. 
The  Sus  Indicus,  on  the  other  hand,  was  nearer  like  our 
present  day  swine,  being  short  and  thick,  with  a  strong 
tendency  to  fatten  easily  and  mature  early.  They  were 
of  several  colors.  The  Asiatics  were  the  first  to  do- 
mesticate and  make  progress  at  breeding,  with  the  result 
that  at  a  very  early  time  there  were  three  strains  or 
breeds  of  the  5.  Indicus,  known  as  the  Chinese,  Siamese 
and  Neapolitan,  which  breeds  or  strains  played  a  very 
important  part  in  the  formation  of  the  present  day 
breeds,  which  for  the  most  part  trace  to  England  or  to 
English  origin. 

Influence  of  domestication  on  swine. — Knowing  as  we 
do  the  principal  characteristics  of  the  original  types  of 
swine  and  of  the  present  breeds,  we  are  able  to  state  what 


50  SOUTHERN    PORK   PRODUCTION 

changes  have  been  brought  about  by  the  process  of 
domestication.  In  the  first  place,  it  has  brought  about  a 
marked  increase  in  their  efficiency  for  converting  feed 
into  pork.  It  is  true  that  through  domestication  they 
have  lost  to  a  marked  degree  their  capacity  to  survive 
adverse  conditions,  but  this  is  not  detrimental  to  their 
usefulness  and  value,  for  they  should  not  be  forced  to 
withstand  adverse  conditions  under  present  methods  of 
production.  Economically,  therefore,  their  value  has  been 
increased  through  the  loss  of  their  capacity  to  withstand 
the  vicissitudes  of  climate  and  insufficient  food  supply. 
A  bit  of  reflection  tells  us  that  this  is  not  only  true  of 
swine,  but  that  it  is  likewise  true  of  other  domestic 
animals  and  plants,  and  we  find  it  a  general  rule  that 
those  plants  or  animals  which  are  the  most  persistent 
are  the  least  valuable. 

Origin  of  breeds  and  strains  of  swine. — While  we  may 
be  continually  making  new  breeds  and  strains  of  swine, 
we  do  not  make  the  material  from  which  new  breeds  and 
strains  arise.  We  are  able  to  make  our  new  strains  only 
by  utilizing  the  inherent  variations  already  present  in 
our  animals.  We  control,  develop  and  magnify  these 
variations  as  much  as  we  are  able  by  controlling  the 
environment.  Any  marked  variations  are  referred  to  as 
sports  or  mutations,  which  mutations  cannot  be  isolated 
and  experimented  with,  but  which  have  been  studied 
enough  that  we  know  that  they  are  inherited  as  units, 
hence  the  term  unit  characters,  which  is  sometimes 
applied  to  them.  It  is  by  the  assembling  of  the  right 
sorts  of  these  variations  that  we  are  able  to  form  new 
breeds  and  strains.  We  simply  collect  into  one  animal, 
or  into  a  few  animals,  those  characters  and  groups  of 


BREEDS    OF    SWINE  51 

characters  which  are  most  desirable.     These  characters 
are  then  established  and  stabilized  by  continued  selection. 

It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  all  of  our  breeds  of  swine 
of  today  have  had  extremely  local  origins.  For  example, 
the  Poland-China,  a  lard  type  of  swine  that  originated 
largely  in  Warren  County,  Ohio,  now  has  a  world-wide 
distribution.  Among  the  other  breeds,  the  Berkshire  and 
Yorkshire  were  extremely  local  during  their  early  de- 
velopment, but  now  their  distribution  is  very  wide. 
Thus  we  have  many  breeds  of  hogs,  some  very  generally 
distributed  and  of  great  importance,  and  others  very  much 
localized  and  of  less  importance.  In  the  British  Isles 
alone,  there  have  been  numerous  breeds  described.  On 
the  Continent  breeds  and  sub-breeds  are  present  in 
abundance,  and  we  find  almost  every  agricultural  section 
with  its  own  native  breeds.  It  was  not  until  about  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  or  a  little  later,  that  an 
active  and  systematic  effort  was  made  to  improve  the 
breeds.  At  that  time  the  efforts  were  centered  upon  the 
production  of  new  breeds,  while  all  of  our  efforts  at 
present  should  be  centered  on  perfection  of  what  these 
breeders  have  accomplished. 

Breeds  of  swine. — Breeds  and  races  of  swine  are  identi- 
cal. By  these  terms  we  refer  to  the  several  small  groups 
of  swine  that  closely  resemble  each  other.  The  breeds 
usually  derive  their  names  from  the  locality  in  which 
they  originate.  Our  present  day  breeds  are  the  results 
of  generations  of  effort,  and  we  are  very  fortunate  to 
have  them  in  their  present  state  of  perfection. 

Tn  making  a  study  of  the  breeds  of  swine,  one  is  at 
once  impressed  by  their  numbers,  which  far  exceed 


52  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

average  expectations.  Any  statement  as  to  the  number 
would  be  purely  an  estimate,  but  the  number  is  no  less 
than  fifty.  This  large  number  results  from  the  fact  that 
frequently  a  community  will  develop  a  breed  that  is  of 
purely  local  distribution.  Very  frequently  these  breeds 
have  considerable  merit,  but  owing  to  geographical  iso- 
lation their  distribution  may  remain  limited  for  years,  or 
until  the  breed  is  finally  absorbed.  It  is  these  kinds  of 
breeds  that  are  so  numerous,  and  in  most  instances  the 
division  line  between  local  breeds  and  native  swine  would 
be  obscure.  The  number  of  well-known  breeds  that  have 
a  wide  distribution  is  not  more  than  a  dozen.  Among 
these  the  Poland-China,  Duroc-Jersey,  Berkshire,  Hamp- 
shire, Large  Yorkshire,  Small  Yorkshire,  Essex,  O.  I.  C., 
Chester  White  and  Tamworth  are  important. 

The  breeds  and  their  principal  characteristics. — In  the 
old-established  breeds,  color,  conformation,  habits  and 
the  like  need  to  be  considered  when  determining  their 
adaptability  to  one's  requirements.  Sometimes  active 
rustlers  are  needed;  again,  quiet,  home-staying,  depend- 
ent hogs  are  best.  In  some  instances  quick-maturing 
hogs  are  needed,  and  in  other  instances  a  slower-matur- 
ing kind  may  more  nearly  meet  one's  needs.  Some 
breeds  will  not  fatten  well  until  they  are  nearly  grown. 
Others  will  fatten  at  any  time  enough  feed  is  given.  All 
breeds  have  their  good  and  bad  qualities.  There  are 
various  breeds  well  adapted  to  our  southern  conditions. 
There  is  not  so  much  difference  in  breeds,  however,  as 
there  is  generally  thought  to  be,  so  that  usually  the 
preference  of  the  owner  may  be  followed  without  injury, 
except  in  those  cases  where  the  environment  demands  a 
particular  type. 


BREEDS    OF    SWINE  53 

Breed  types. — In  a  general  way,  the  different  breeds 
of  hogs  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  dependent  to  a 
large  extent  upon  the  relative  proportion  of  fat  and  lean 
they  carry  when  finished.  The  two  classes,  or  types,  are 
referred  to  as  the  lard  and  bacon  types.  The  lard,  or  fat 
type,  predominates,  and  is  best  adapted  to  the  corn-rais- 
ing sections,  where  it  economically  converts  all  surplus 
corn  into  pork.  The  several  lard  breeds  differ  but  little 
from  one  another  in  essentials,  so  that  as  a  rule  personal 
preferences  may  be  indulged  in  without  disadvantage. 
The  bacon  breeds  do  not  have  the  tendency  to  fatten  so 
marked  as  do  the  lard  types,  however,  and  some  breeds 
are  either  lard  or  bacon  type,  depending  on  the  environ- 
ment in  which  they  are  placed.  Nevertheless  there  seems 
to  be  a  tendency  for  the  bacon  type  of  hogs  to  gain  in 
popularity,  and  especially  are  they  adapted  to  the  con- 
version of  grazing  crops  into  pork.  This  is  one  thing  that 
prospective  producers  of  pork  will  have  to  watch,  and 
that  is  to  see  that  the  breed  or  animals  they  select  are 
adapted  to  grazing.  In  addition,  color  plays  a  part  in  our 
southern  climate.  The  strictly  lard  type  of  hog  will 
probably  never  be  so  popular  in  the  South  as  it  has  been 
in  the  Corn  Belt.  In  the  selection  of  breeds  to  meet  our 
particular  conditions  we  cannot  ignore  types ;  therefore, 
in  discussing  the  characteristics  of  the  several  breeds, 
they  are  taken  up  in  the  order  of  their  tendencies  from 
the  lard  to  bacon  type. 

The  Poland-China. — This  is  strictly  an  American  breed 
that  originated  about  the  middle  of  the  last  century  in 
Butler  and  Warren  Counties  of  Southwestern  Ohio.  It 
resulted  from  the  crossing  of  the  Russian,  Byfield,  Big 
China,  Irish  Grazier,  and  Berkshire  on  the  native  Warren 


54 


SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 


County  Pig.  The  name  is  the  result  of  the  use  of  a  strain 
of  hogs  that  were  bred  by  a  Polander  and  which  went 
under  the  name  of  Polands  and,  of 
course,  the  China  came  from  the  Big 
China  stock  that  was  used.  The  early 
animals  of  the  breed  were  large 
and  quick-maturing,  with  a  spotted 
color. 

This  is  a  breed  that  comes  as  near 
as  is  possible  to  conforming  to  the 
ideal  fat  hog  type.  The  head  is  of 
medium  size,  with  nose  straight  and 
with  the  ears  pendent.  The  body 
is  compact,  with  a  broad  back  and 
deep  sides.  The  hams  are  perfect. 
It  is  the  ideal  lard  type.  In  color  it 
very  much  resembles  the  Berkshire, 
being  black  with  white  markings. 
The  breed  is  of  medium  size,  mature 
boars  weighing  around  450  and  the 
sows  around  350  to  375  pounds. 

It  is  not  as  adaptable  a  breed 
as  some  of  the  others.  It  was 
made  primarily  for  use  in  the  Corn  Belt,  where  for 
many  years  it  has  outclassed  all  other  breeds.  It  is 
strictly  a  lard  type  and  is  well  suited  for  corn  feeding. 
It  is  an  extremely  early  maturing  type,  but  is  of  that 
disposition  that  wants  all  of  its  feed  placed  right  before 
it.  Some  class  it  as  a  lazy  breed.  They  are  of  second 
rate  as  grazers  and  rustlers,  largely  for  the  reason  that 
they  do  not  stand  up  well  on  their  feet  and  pasterns.  As 
a  feeder  and  fattener,  this  breed  has  no  superior.  The 
quality  of  pork  is  quite  fat  and  is  not  classed  as  the  best 


Blood  lines  of  the 
Poland-China. 


BREEDS    OF    SWINE 


55 


by  some  on  this  account.  It  is  good  for  crossing  with 
other  types  when  pork-producing  qualities  of  the  extreme 
type  are  sought.  The  boars,  however,  are  not  as  pre- 
potent as  the  boars  of  some  breeds  in  stamping  their  type 
on  the  offspring.  In  fecundity  qualities  this  breed  is 
lacking,  and  has  been  severely  criticized  on  this  ground. 
Dr.  A.  W.  Bitting1  found  1,086  litters  to  average  7.45, 
while  Dr.  G.  M.  Rommel2  found  the  average  to  be  7.04 
with  50,000  litters.  As  a  breeder,  therefore,  it  is  second 
rate. 


Poland  China  gilt,  Jennie  Girl  (581414)  owned  by  Joe  R.  Martin 
of  Georgia. 

The  breed  is  pretty  generally  distributed  over  the 
South,  but  in  the  extreme  South  it  has  not  met  with  the 
popularity  that  has  been  awarded  some  other  breeds. 
The  prices  paid  for  individuals  of  this  breed  were  ab- 


1 10th  Ann.  Rept.  Ind.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  (1897). 
2  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  B.  S.  I.  Circular  95. 


56 


SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 


normally  high  several  years  ago,  but  they  are  now 
normal  and  not  above  the  average.  The  interests  of  the 
breed  have  been  looked  after  by  several  associa- 
tions. The  American  Poland-China  Record  Company 

(1878),  W.  M.  McFadden,  Sec- 
retary, Union  Stock  Yard, 
Chicago,  111.;  the  National  Po- 
land-China Record  Co.  (1905), 
A.  M.  Brown,  Secretary,  Win- 
chester, Ind. ;  and  the  Standard 
Poland-China  Record  Associa- 
tion (1887),  Geo.  F.  Wood- 
worth,  Secretary,  Marysville, 
Mo.,  all  register  and  look  after 
the  interests  of  the  breed. 

The  Chester  White.— This  is 
a  distinctly  American  breed 
that  originated  largely  in 
Chester  County,  Pennsylvania. 
The  foundation  stock  for  the 
breed  came  from  England, 
principally  from  Bedfordshire 
and  Cumberland.  Chinese, 
Irish  Grazier,  and  Normandy 
swine  were  also  used  in  mak- 
ing the  breed,  according  to 
Plumb.  The  farmers,  prin- 
cipally from  Chester  County, 
developed  the  breed,  and  being  a  white  breed,  the  name 
Chester  White  was  appropriate. 

This  breed  is  distinctly  of  the  lard  type  and  conforma- 
tion. The  face  is  medium  in  length  and  straight.  The 
ears  break  over  for  the  outer  third  or  half  their  length. 


(fee?) 

Blood  lines   of   the   Chester 
White  and  O.  I.  C. 


BREEDS    OF    SWINE  57 

The  back  and  hams  show  the  extreme  of  development. 
As  a  rule,  the  bone  is  small  and  weak,  and  it  is  in  the 
pasterns  that  this  breed  is  noticeably  deficient.  The 
color  is  pure  white,  and  the  animals  average  large  in 
weight  on  account  of  the  extreme  fattening  tendencies. 
Mature  boars  will  weigh  around  500  and  the  sows 
around  400  pounds.  Some  individuals  will,  of  course, 
greatly  exceed  these  figures. 

The  breed  is  suited  primarily  for  Corn  Belt  conditions, 
and  is  not  easily  adapted  to  other  conditions.  There  are 
a  few  small  herds  of  the  breed  in  the  South,  but  they  will 
probably  never  attain  any  great  prominence.  They  are 
extremely  early  maturing,  but  they  rank  low  as  grazers. 
They  cannot  stand  up  in  the  pasterns.  As  feeders  and 
fatteners  they  rank  high,  but  they  are  not  adapted  to 
intensive  methods  of  feeding  on  grazing  crops.  Their 
color  is  against  them  in  the  extreme  South.  The  pork  is 
usually  too  fat,  very  similar  in  many  respects  to  the  meat 
of  the  Poland-China.  For  crossing  they  do  fairly  well 
where  early  maturity  and  fattening  propensities  are 
desired  in  the  offspring.  The  boars  are  only  fairly  pre- 
potent in  stamping  their  type.  As  breeders  they  rank 
rather  high  and  are  considered  as  the  most  prolific  of 
the  heavy  types.  Dr.  A.  W.  .Bitting1  found  600  litters  to 
average  8.96  per  litter,  which  is  high  for  the  lard  type 
of  hog. 

There  are  a  few  herds  scattered  over  the  South,  but 
their  distribution  cannot  be  said  to  be  widespread.  They 
are  probably  on  the  decline  in  popularity  rather  than  on 
the  increase.  In  prices,  they  have  never  brought  the 
fancy  figures  obtained  by  the  individuals  of  some  breeds, 


1 10th  Ann.  Rept.  Ind.  Agr  Expt.  Sta.  (1897). 


58 


SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 


but  they  have  been  average  in  price.  The  Chester  White 
Record  Association,  F.  F.  Moore,  Secretary,  Rochester, 
Ind.,  attends  to  the  registrations  and  looks  after  the  inter- 
ests of  the  breed. 


Ohio  Improved  Chester. — This  is  a  distinct  breed  that 

resulted  as  an  offshoot 
from     the 
Whites. 


Blood  lines  of  the  Small  Yorkshire. 


Chester 
It  was  origi- 
nated by  Mr.  L.  B. 
Silvers,  who  developed 
his  herd  by  crossing 
and  selection  until  he 
considered  it  superior 
to  the  original  Chester 
White.  He  referred  to 
them  as  the  Interna- 
tional Ohio  Improved 
Chesters,  and  in  1891 
an  association  was 
formed  to  look  after 
the  registration  of  the 
animals.  This  associa- 
tion is  now  known  as 
the  O.  I.  C.  Swine 


Breeders'     Association, 
J.  C.  Hiles,  Secretary,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

As  a  breed,  it  must  be  considered  along  with  the 
Chester  Whites  in  so  far  as  it  concerns  a  southern  swine 
industry.  It  will  probably  never  enjoy  the  popularity  that 
has  been  accorded  the  Duroc-Jersey  and  Berkshire  breeds. 

The  Small  Yorkshire.— This  English  breed  originated 
in  Yorkshire  County,  England,  over  a  century  ago  as  a 


BREEDS    OF    SWINE  59 

result  of  the  use  of  Chinese,  Solway,  Small  White, 
Suffolk,  Windsor,  and  Cumberland  stock  on  the  native 
pigs  of  the  country.  According  to  Curtis,  they  were 
introduced  to  this  country  about  1869.  This  is  a  dis- 
tinctly lard  breed.  The  ears  are  erect  and  the  face  short, 
with  an  extreme  dish.  The  breed  is  white,  except  for 
occasional  black  spots  on  the  skin,  which  are  objection- 
able. They  are  small  of  size,  and  mature  boars  average 
around  250,  while  the  sows  will  average  about  fifty 
pounds  less.  They  are  in  all  probability  not  a  breed  that 
would  be  well  adapted  to  our  southern  requirements. 
They  are  registered  as  Class  A  by  the  American  York- 
shire Club,  H.  G.  Krum,  Secretary  (1893),  with  head- 
quarters at  White  Bear  Lake,  Minn. 

Duroc-Jersey. — This  is  distinctly  an  American  breed, 
that  originated  in  New  York  and  New  Jersey  during  the 
half  century  from  1822  to  1872.  According  to  Plumb,  it 
resulted  from  the  amalgamation  of  blood  of  Guinea, 
Portuguese,  Spanish  Red,  and  possibly  Berkshire  blood, 
upon  the  native  stock,  and  finally  by  the  amalgamation 
of  the  local  Duroc  swine  and  the  Jersey  Reds  in  1883. 
The  latter  incident  suggests  the  origin  of  the  name.  The 
name  Duroc,  however,  happened  to  be  of  local  origin, 
and  was  the  name  of  a  stallion  owned  by  one  of  the  early 
breeders  of  these  swine.  The  Jersey  part  of  the  name 
comes  from  the  place  of  origin,  New  Jersey.  The  early 
types  of  Duroc-Jersey  swine  were  long  and  rangy,  with 
tendencies  to  coarseness  and  size. 

Among  the  noticeable  characteristics  of  the  breed  are 
the  small  head,  with  a  straight  or  slightly  dished  face  of 
medium  length  and  with  the  outer  one-third  of  the  ear 
broken  over  or  pendent.  The  general  form  of  the  body 


60 


SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 


of  the  hog  is  approximately  that  of  the  ideal  fat  hog,  with 
a  short,  wide,  deep  body,  with  a  maximum  of  develop- 
ment in  the  hams  and  the  valuable  part  of  the  back.  In 
many  ways  it  resembles  the  Poland-China  hog  in  form, 
although  it  is  not  quite  the  extreme  lard  type  that  this 
latter  named  breed  is.  In  color  it  is  some  shade  of  red, 


Blood  lines  of  the  Duroc-Jersey. 

which  may  vary  from  a  very  light  to  a  very  dark  red.  In 
some  instances  they  have  black  spots  on  the  skin,  but  this 
is  not  objected  to.  In  size  they  are  classed  as  medium 
to  large.  Some  individuals  attain  weights  close  to  1,000 
pounds,  but  mature  boars  will  average  around  500 
pounds  and  mature  sows  around  400.  This  is  one  of  the 


BREEDS    OF    SWINE 


61 


most  adaptable  breeds  of  swine  we  have,  and  on 
account  of  its  color  and  general  qualities  it  is  remarkably 
well  suited  to  southern  conditions.  It  is  an  early  matur- 
ing breed  that  will  fatten  readily  at  almost  any  age. 

Its  grazing  qualities  are  fair  and,  as  a  rule,  it  is  to  be 
looked  upon  as  a  good  rustler.     When  the  feed  is  put 


Duroc-Jersey  boar,  Defender's  Ohio  Chief   (45899),  owned  by 
A.  Ramey  &  Bro.  of  Tennessee. 

within  its  reach  it  will  consume  large  quantities  and 
make  gains  as  economically  and  as  rapidly  as  any  breed. 
The  quality  of  the  pork  produced  is  classed  by  some  as 
lacking  in  quality,  but  there  seems  no  justifiable  evidence 
for  these  conclusions.  It  is,  of  course,  inclined  to  be  a 
little  too  fat.  For  crossing  on  other  types  of  swine,  it  is 
admirably  adapted,  and  early-maturing,  easy-feeding 
and  fattening  qualities  are  added  to  the  offspring.  A 
cross  that  is  commonly  and  successfully  made  is  that  of  a 


62  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

Berkshire  boar  with  sows  of  this  breed.  The  fecundity 
of  the  breed  is  high,  and  the  sows  have  comparatively 
large  litters.  In  a  study  of  the  prolificacy  of  breeds  of 
swine,  Dr.  Rommel1  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  found  that  21,652  litters  of  this  breed  aver- 
aged 9.26  to  the  litter,  which  must  be  considered  as  quite 
high  and  above  the  average  for  pure-bred  swine.  The 
breed,  having  been  bred  along  definite  lines  for  many 
years,  is  quite  prepotent,  and  the  boars  seem  to  stamp 
their  type  and  color  well  on  all  their  offspring,  the  result 
of  the  first  generation  when  they  are  crossed  onto  grade 
or  common  stock  being  of  the  red  color  and  possessing 
to  a  considerable  degree  the  desirable  characteristics  of 
the  breed. 

The  breed  is  one  of  the  most  widely  distributed  and 
probably  enjoys  the  widest  distribution  of  any  of  the 
breeds  in  the  South.  In  prices  they  range  all  along  from 
rather  high  to  lower  and  average  prices.  It  is  especially 
to  be  recommended  for  southern  use  for  several  reasons, 
as  mentioned  above.  Its  quietness  of  disposition  is  a 
most  admirable  quality,  which  makes  it  easily  confined. 
The  registration  and  the  interests  of  the  breed  are  fos- 
tered by  two  associations,  the  American  Duroc-Jersey 
Swine  Breeders'  Association  (1883),  R.  J.  Evans,  Secre- 
tary, with  offices  at  Chicago,  111.,  and  the  National  Duroc- 
Jersey  Record  Association  (1891),  J.  R.  Pfander,  Secre- 
tary, with  offices  located  at  Peoria,  111. 

The  Essex. — This  is  an  old  English  breed  that  origi- 
nated in  the  County  of  Essex  in  England,  from  whence 
the  breed  gets  its  name.  The  stock  used  in  its  foundation 
were  principally  Neapolitan,  Black  Suffolk  and  Berkshire. 


1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  B.  A.  I.  Circ.  95. 


BREEDS    OF    SWINE 


63 


The  early  types  were  both  black  and  white  and  were  very 
refined,  showing  plainly  the  results  of  the  Neapolitan 
blood.  Early  types  of  Essex  were  introduced  to  America 
about  1820,  but  the  breed  never 
met  with  any  great  success 
here.  In  many  ways  the  breed 
resembles  the  Berkshire,  the 
blood  of  which  breed  it  shows 
plainly.  The  face  is  broad  and 
the  nose  short  and  upturned.  It 
is  inclined  to  be  on  the  order  of 
bacon  hogs  in  form,  but  de- 
cidedly of  easy-fattening  tend- 
dencies.  It  is  small  of  stature 
and  bone,  and  possesses  ex- 
treme quality.  In  color  it  is 
black  all  over,  and  white  is  ob- 
jectionable. The  size  of  the  in- 
dividuals is  as  a  rule  small,  and 
mature  boars  average  around 
300  pounds,  and  the  sows 
about  250. 

Their     distribution     is     not 

widespread,  but  a  few  are  found  in  the  southern  states. 
As  a  rule  they  seem  to  be  increasing  just  a  little  in  popu- 
larity. The  American  Essex  Association  (1887),  F.  M. 
Strout,  Secretary,  McLean,  111.,  attends  to  the  registra- 
tions and  looks  after  the  interests  of  the  breed  in  general. 

Cheshire. — This  is  a  distinctly  American  breed  that 
was  originated  largely  in  Jefferson  County,  New  York. 
It  resulted  from  the  use  of  Large  Yorkshire  and  White 
Suffolk  blood  on  the  native  stock  of  the  county.  The 
origin  of  the  name  is  obscure,  but  in  all  probability  it 


Blood  lines  of  the  Essex. 


64 


SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 


traces  back  to  Cheshire,  England,  in  some  way.     The 
older  types  very  much  resemble  the  Yorkshire  breed. 

Owing  to  the  free  use  of  the  Large  Yorkshire  breed,  it 
very  much  resembles  that  breed  in  characteristics.     It  is 
5  smaller,    however,     and     more 

nearly  resembles  the  Middle 
Yorkshire  breed.  It  has  a 
'dished  face,  straight  ears,  and 
a  form  between  the  lard  and 
bacon  type.  It  is  solid  white 
in  color.  They  are  only  me- 
dium in  size,  mature  boars 
weighing  around  450  and  ma- 
ture sows  around  350  to  400 
pounds. 

As  a  breed  it  is  not  widely 
distributed  in  the  South.  There 
are  a  few  herds  in  the  South- 
east, where  they  have  been 
bred  for  many  years.  The 
Cheshire  Swine  Breeders'  As- 
sociation (1884),  Ed.  S.  Hill, 


0  .   ,        rr 

ni     .  r         r   i     ^     u-        Secretary,  with  offices  at  Free- 
Blood  lines  of  the  Cheshire.       .„  ' .  __ 

ville,    N.  Y.,    looks    after    the 

registrations  and  the  general  interests  of  the  breed. 

The  Berkshire. — This  is  one  of  the  older  English 
breeds  that  originated  in  the  counties  of  Berkshire  and 
Wiltshire,  England.  It  resulted  from  the  crossing  of 
Chinese,  Siamese  and  Neapolitan  swine  on  the  native 
English  swine.  The  name,  of  course,  comes  from  the 
county  in  England  where  the  breed  largely  originated. 
The  early  types  of  the  breed  had  large  pendent  ears,  with 


BREEDS    OF    SWINE  65 

colors  varying  from  a  reddish  brown  to  a  spotted  color. 
In  quality  and  physical  form  they  plainly  showed  the 
refining  effects  of  the  Chinese,  Neapolitan  and  Siamese 
blood.  They  were  first  imported  into  the  United  States 
in  1823  by  John  Bretwell  of  New  Jersey. 

The  breed  is  a  type  peculiar  to  its  own.  In  England 
it  is  a  bacon  breed,  but  in  America  it  inclines  strongly 
to  the  lard  type.  The  face  is  of  somewhat  medium 
length  and  is  generally  dished,  with  the  ears  standing 
erect  and  forward.  It  has  excellent  bone  and  stands  up 


Berkshire  gilt,  Premier's  Queen  25th  (179325),  owned  by  J.  W. 
Strickland  of  Georgia. 

well  on  its  pasterns.  The  color  is  generally  black,  with 
white  markings  on  the  face,  end  of  tail  and  on  the  four 
feet.  It  is  only  a  medium-sized  hog  and  the  mature  boars 
will  on  the  average  weigh  around  450,  while  the  sows  will 
run  about  100  pounds  less.  Some  individuals  readily 
attain  twice  this  size. 

Like  the  Duroc-Jersey,  it  also  is  a  very  adaptable  breed 
and  is  well  suited  to  average  southern  conditions.     Its 


66 


SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 


color  is  suited  to  our  climate,  and,  being  an  early  maturer 
and  a  good  grazer,  it  meets  our  requirements  well.  It  is 
one  of  the  best  feeders  and  fatteners  we  have,  making 
gains  rapidly  and  economically.  It  is  not  of  the  quiet 

disposition  of  some  breeds,  and 
is  therefore  not  easily  confined. 
It  is  a  good  rustler,  however, 
and  if  there  is  anything  to  be 
found  to  eat,  it  will  take  care  of 
itself.  It  is  almost  as  prolific  as 
the  Duroc-Jersey,  and  the  sows 
show  themselves  to  be  excellent 
mothers  and  less  apt  to  lie  upon 
their  pigs  than  the  Durocs. 
The  quality  of  the  pork  is  un- 
surpassed, having  a  very  high 
percentage  of  lean.  This  breed 
had  been  used  extensively  in 
crossing,  both  in  grading  up  and 
in  crossing  with  other  breeds, 
Crossed  with  the  Duroc-Jersey, 
an  ideal  pork  animal  is  pro- 
duced. Their  fecundity  and 
breeding  capacity  is  high.  Dr. 
A.  W.  Bitting1  found  400  litters 

to  average  8.22  pigs  each,  which  must  be  considered  high. 
The  boars  are  quite  prepotent  on  account  of  the  age  of 
the  breed,  and  they  stamp  their  type  strongly  on  un- 
improved and  grade  animals. 

As  a  breed  they  are  widely  distributed  over  the  South, 
but  they  are  not  so  numerous  as  the  Duroc-Jersey.  They 
have  sold  in  the  past  at  rather  fancy  prices,  but  they  do 

'Tenth  Ann.  Rept.  Ind.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  (1897). 


Blood  lines  of  the  Berk- 
shire. 


BREEDS    OF    SWI1SE 


67 


not  now  range  above  the  average.  The  interests  of  the 
breed  are  largely  looked  after  by  the  American  Berkshire 
Swine  Breeders'  Association  (1875),  F.  S.  Springer, 
Secretary,  with  headquarters  at  Springfield,  Ohio.  This 
association  looks  after  registering  the  pure-bred  animals. 

Hampshire    or    Thin    Rind. — This    is    distinctly    an 
American  breed  that  originated  in  Massachusetts  and 


Hampshire  gilt  owned  by  J.  P.  Tilley,  Jr.,  of  Alabama. 

Kentucky,  principally  in  the  latter  state.  It  is  possible 
that  some  swine  from  Hampshire,  England,  figured  in 
the  formation  of  the  breed,  but  no  authentic  evidence  is 
at  hand  to  prove  it.  There  is  evidence,  however,  that 
some  Chinese  blood  was  used.  In  characteristics  of  body 
the  animal  possesses  many  things  similar  to  the  Berk- 
shire. The  nose  is  rather  long  and  the  ears  point  straight 
ahead.  The  conformation  tends  toward  the  bacon  type, 
but  the  development  of  the  hams  is  excellent. 


68  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

The  color  is  black,  with  a  white  belting  from  4  to  12 
inches  wide  that  starts  at  the  neck  or  fore  shoulder  and 
extends  back  to  the  heart-girth,  generally  taking  in  the 
forelegs.  It  is  not  a  large  breed;  mature  boars  will 
average  around  400  pounds,  and  the  sows  from  300  to  350 
pounds.  As  a  breed,  it  seems  fairly  well  adapted  to 
southern  conditions,  and  will  probably  meet  with  con- 
siderable favor,  as  it  has  already  done  in  several  sections 
of  the  South.  The  breed  has  not  been  used  to  any  great 
extent  in  crossing,  but  the  individuals  are  prepotent  and 
could  be  used  in  the  improvement  of  many  herds.  The 
breeding  qualities  are  excellent  and  above  the  average. 
The  breed  is  rather  widely  distributed  in  the  South,  but 
not  densely.  The  prices  that  have  been  obtained  for  the 
breed  have  been  only  average.  The  registrations  and 
interests  of  the  breed  are  looked  after  by  The  American 
Swine  Record  Association,  E.  C.  Stone,  Secretary,  Arm- 
strong, 111. 

Mule  Foot. — This  is  a  rather  recent  American  breed  of 
uncertain  origin.  The  foundation  stock  used  was  prob- 
ably Berkshire,  Poland-China  and  native  blood.  The 
first  members  of  the  breed  were  mutations  in  which  the 
cloven  foot  gave  way  to  the  one-toed  condition,  such  as 
prevails  in  the  horse  and  mule,  hence  the  name.  S.  H. 
Dunlap  of  Ohio  has  been  prominent  in  developing  and 
putting  the  breed  before  the  public.  It  resembles  the 
Berkshire  in  body  characteristics,  but  the  ears  are 
pendent,  and  the  color  is  solid  black,  with  white  per- 
missible. The  individuals  are  small  to  medium  in  weight, 
mature  boars  averaging  around  450  to  500,  and  the 
mature  sows  averaging  about  100  pounds  less.  The 
breed  has  been  boosted  a  great  deal  upon  the  ground 


BREEDS    OF    SWINE  69 

that  it  was  cholera  immune,  but  they  have  proven  to  be 
just  as  susceptible  to  the  disease  as  other  breeds.  They 
do  not  mature  very  early,  and  in  breeding  capacity  they 
average  pretty  well  up,  resembling  the  Berkshire  in  this 
respect.  The  quality  of  the  pork  produced  is  excellent. 
They  are  not  very  desirable  for  crossing  purposes,  for 
the  breed  is  too  young  and  the  individuals  lack  in  pre- 
potency. They  have  not  enjoyed  a  wide  distribution  and 
popularity.  The  interests  of  the  breed  and  the  registra- 
tions are  looked  after  by  the  National  Mule  Foot  Hog 
Record  Association,  W.  H.  Morris,  Secretary,  with  head- 
quarters at  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

The  Large  Yorkshire. — This  English  breed  originated 
in  Yorkshire  County,  England,  over  a  century  ago.  It 
resulted  from  the  use  of  Berkshire,  White  Leicester, 
Small  Yorkshire  and  Solway  blood  on  the  Old  Yorkshire 
pig — hence  the  name.  The  early  types  were  very  large 
and  coarse,  with  but  little  or  no  refinement,  with  large, 
coarse,  heavy  ears  and  strong  tendencies  toward  extreme 
bacon  type.  The  breed  was  introduced  to  America  prior 
to  1840.  Most  of  the  importations  cf  the  breed  to 
America  went  to  Canada,  where  the  breed  attained  some 
prominence,  but  it  has  never  met  with  great  popularity 
in  the  States. 

The  breed  is  quite  large  and  is  of  the  extreme  bacon 
type.  The  face  is  short  and  dished  and  the  ears  stand 
erect.  There  is  a  slack  development  of  the  back  and 
hams,  but  with  great  depth  and  length  of  side.  The 
breed  is  characterized  by  a  heavy  bone.  The  color  is 
white.  This  is  one  of  the  largest  breeds  we  have,  and  the 
boars  when  matured  will  weigh  around  600  and  the  sows 
around  500  pounds.  Individuals  frequently  weigh  close 


70  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

to  1,000  pounds.  The  breed  as  a  whole  is  not  one  that  is 
readily  adaptable  to  changed  conditions.  In  the  United 
States  it  has  not  met  with  much  favor,  and  probably  will 
not  meet  with  any  appreciable  success  in  the  South.  It  is 
a  slow-maturing  type.  One  very  commendable  feature 
about  the  breed  is  the  very  high  breeding  capacity,  which 
is  excelled  by  no  other  breed.  The  litters  average  nearly 
twelve  pigs.  The  breed  is  valuable  for  crossing  where 
bacon  type  is  desired.  The  boars  are  usually  quite  pre- 
potent, due  to  the  age  of  the  breed. 

The  distribution  of  the  breed  in  the  United  States  is 
very  limited,  and  the  numbers  in  the  southern  states  are 
few.  It  is  not  popular  in  the  South,  and  probably  never 
will  be.  The  registrations  and  interests  of  the  breed  are 
attended  to  by  the  American  Yorkshire  Club  (1893), 
H.  G.  Krum,  Secretary,  with  headquarters  at  White  Bear 
Lake,  Minn. 

Tamworth. — The  origin  of  this  breed  is  more  or  less 
obscure.  It  probably  originated  in  the  counties  of 
Stafford,  Leicester,  Northampton  and  Warwick,  in  Eng- 
land, and  possibly  the  Irish  Grazier  in  Ireland  may  have 
played  some  part  in  its  development.  The  foundation 
stock  used  is  likewise  unknown,  but  it  was  probably 
principally  Old  English  stock  on  which  some  Berkshire, 
Irish  Grazier,  and  some  White  and  Neapolitan  stock  were 
used.  The  name  comes  from  Tamworth,  a  borough  on 
the  borders  of  Stafford  and  Warwickshire,  in  England. 
The  early  type  did  not  differ  materially  from  the  present 
day  type,  having  long  legs  and  snout,  narrow  body,  a 
slow-maturing  capacity,  with  great  constitution  and 
activity,  which  combined  to  make  it  an  excellent  grazer. 
It  was  a  farmer's  hog  and  was  improved  largely  by 


BREEDS    OF    SWINE 


71 


farmers.    The  first  importation  of  the  breed  was  made  in 
1882  by  Thomas  Bennett  of  Illinois. 

The  Tamworth  has  a  striking  appearance,  with  a  long 
head,  body  and  legs.  The  snout  is,  as  a  rule,  noticeably 
long  and  narrow.  The  ears  are  large  and  erect.  The 
back  is  narrow  and  the  hams  deficient.  Some  individuals 


Louisiana  bred  Tamworth  sow.    Courtesy  B.  M.  Jackson. 

represent  the  extreme  bacon  type.  The  color  is  red, 
generally  a  sandy  red,  and  usually  is  not  as  bright  as  the 
Duroc  color.  Some  individuals  attain  great  weight,  and 
the  breed  is  a  large  one.  The  mature  boars  will  average 
around  500  pounds  and  the  sows  around  400  to  450. 

The  breed  is  not  so  well  adapted  to  southern  conditions 
where  modern  methods  are  used.  It  is  a  breed  that  will 
stand  much  abuse  and  is,  therefore,  suited  to  conditions 
where  the  hogs  must  range  over  a  wide  territory  for  their 
food  supply.  It  is  a  slow-maturing  animal,  but  as  a 
grazer  it  ranks  high.  As  a  feeder  and  fattener  it  is  only 
medium,  for  it  has  never  been  developed  to  the  extremes 


72  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

along  these  lines,  as  have  some  of  the  other  breeds.  The 
quality  of  the  meat  produced  is  excellent.  As  an  animal 
for  crossing  with  other  stock  it  is  excellent  where  certain 
rustling  qualities  are  desired,  and  the  boars  will  usually 
be  found  quite  prepotent  in  stamping  their  type. 

The  breed  is  pretty  widely  distributed  over  the  South, 
but  the  numbers  are  comparatively  few.  It  seldom  meets 
with  much  popularity  on  account  of  its  unattractive 
appearance.  It  yet  remains  to  be  seen  how  nearly  it  meets 
our  requirements.  The  American  Tamworth  Swine 
Record  Association  (1897),  E.  N.  Ball,  Secretary,  Ann 
Arbor,  Mich.,  looks  after  the  registrations  and  general 
interests  of  the  breed. 

The  Victoria. — Two  strains  of  this  breed  were  pro- 
duced, one  by  Col.  F.  D.  Curtis  in  Saratoga  County,  N.Y., 
and  the  other  by  Geo.  F.  Davis  of  Dyer,  Ind.  The  sow, 
Queen  Victoria,  was  one  of  the  early  notables  of  the 
breed.  In  many  respects  they  resemble  the  Middle  York- 
shire, the  face  having  a  medium  dish,  with  the  ears  small 
and  erect,  and  of  medium  lard  type.  They  are  white  in 
color,  in  size  they  are  medium,  and  mature  boars  will 
average  about  500  pounds,  and  the  sows  about  100  pounds 
less.  They  are,  as  a  rule,  not  well  adapted  to  southern 
conditions  on  account  of  their  color,  and  there  are  but 
very  few  in  the  South.  The  registrations  are  handled 
and  the  interests  of  the  breed  looked  after  by  the  Victoria 
Swine  Breeders'  Association,  which  was  organized  in 
1886. 

The  Large  Black  hog. — A  breed  of  swine  that  has  come 
into  prominence  in  recent  years  that  may  play  a  role  in 
southern  swine  husbandry  is  the  Large  Black  pig  from 


BREEDS    OF    SWINE  73 

England.  The  popularity  of  this  breed  is  increasing. 
The  origin  is  obscure,  but  it  has  been  developed  in  the 
east  and  the  south  of  England.  The  breed  is  large,  as 
the  name  implies;  the  bodies  are  long  and  of  bacon 
tendencies,  with  a  general  coarseness  of  all  parts,  es- 
pecially of  the  head,  which  has  a  long,  pendent  ear.  The 
individuals  of  this  breed  are  good  feeders  and  do 
well  under  conditions  of  adverse  food  supply,  es- 
pecially where  the  food  is  obtained  by  considerable  effort. 
The  breed  is  quite  prolific,  and  litters  usually  average 
between  10  and  12.  The  interests  of  the  breed  in  this 
country  are  looked  after  by  the  American  Large  Black 
Pig  Society,  Lexington,  Ky.,  of  which  Mr.  J.  F.  Cook  is 
Secretary. 

Big  Guinea  hogs. — This  is  the  only  breed  of  hogs  that 
can  be  classed  as  strictly  southern.  It  originated  in  the 
South.  Forty  or  50  years  ago  it  was  quite  popular. 
While  this  was  a  distinct  breed,  no  attempt  has  been 
made  to  record  them  and  keep  them  pure.  They  have 
been  kept  pure  only  in  a  few  places.  The  origin  of  the 
breed  is  more  or  less  obscure,  but  the  Essex  is  reputed  to 
have  had  a  part  in  their  improvement.  They  also  show 
evidences  of  Berkshire  blood.  In  color  they  are  either 
solid  black  or  else  black  and  white  spotted,  like  the 
spotted  Poland-China.  The  ears  are  short  and  thin  and 
stand  erect ;  they  have  a  nose  of  medium  length,  which  is 
straight;  the  body  is  only  average  in  dimensions;  the 
hair  is  thin  and  sometimes  wavy;  they  are  character- 
istically short  of  leg  and  at  first  glance  they  appear 
dumpy ;  they  rank  intermediate  in  type,  and  are  reputed 
to  have  a  high  dressing  percentage,  yielding  a  pork  of 
high  quality. 


74 


SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 


The  individuals  of  the  breed  seem  to  do  well  on  rather 
limited  feed  supply,  and  having  been  bred  along  grazing 
lines  they  are  to  be  classed  as  excellent  grazers.  They 


Big  Guinea  swine  on  Willow  Dale  Farm,  Mayfield,  Ga. 

have  an  advantage  in  the  shortness  of  leg  in  that  a 
comparatively  low  fence  will  retain  them.  While  the 
pigs  grow  off  at  a  fairly  rapid  rate,  the  mature  indi- 
viduals of  the  breed  do  not  attain  a  large  size.  The 
mature  sows  weigh  from  200  to  250  pounds,  and  the  boars 
from  250  to  300  pounds.  They  are  only  fairly  prolific, 
averaging  from  six  to  ten  pigs  a  litter.  Their  distribution 
has  been  confined  chiefly  to  the  southern  states  east  of 
the  Mississippi  River,  although  a  few  have  been  taken 
into  Arkansas  and  other  southwestern  states.  As  to  just 
what  part  these  hogs  will  play  in  the  future  swine 
industry  of  the  South  it  is  difficult  to  state.  They  have 
certainly  declined  in  numbers  and  popularity  for  several 
years,  but  just  at  the  present  time  considerably  more 
interest  is  being  manifested  in  them. 


BREEDS    OF    SWINE  75 

The  best  breed.— There  are  20  or  30  different  breeds  of 
swine.  Each  of  these  is  claimed  to  be  the  best  by  its 
supporters.  Strictly  speaking,  from  a  market  standpoint, 
this  matter  of  breed  is  of  but  little  consequence.  Swine 
are  intended  for  the  production  of  pork,  and  on  the  mar- 
ket we  find  that  they  are  bought  and  sold  strictly  upon 
the  basis  of  their  pork-producing  capacities.  The  prices 
do  not  vary  according  to  the  breed,  but  according  to 
condition  and  quality.  What  one  wants,  therefore,  are 
breeding  animals  that  will  produce  individuals  which  will 
economically  grow  into  pork.  The  principal  considera- 
tions are,  therefore,  the  selection  of  those  animals  regard- 
less of  particular  characteristics  of  some  particular  breed, 
but  emphasizing  those  points  that  make  the  animal  a 
more  economical  producer  of  pork. 

The  question  is  frequently  asked  as  to  which  is  the  best 
breed  of  hogs.  There  is  no  best  breed  for  all  conditions 
of  soil,  climate  and  food  supply.  The  breeds  have  their 
adaptabilities,  and  one  might  succeed  admirably  where 
others  would  fail  utterly.  For  the  most  part,  however, 
the  selection  of  breed  will  be  a  matter  of  taste.  The 
special  advantage  and  qualifications  of  each  breed  should 
be  carefully  weighed  before  a  final  decision  is  made. 

The  selection  of  a  breed. — In  selecting  a  breed  to  use, 
the  preferences  of  the  breeder  should  have  considerable 
weight.  The  personal  interest  and  belief  in  a  breed  has  a 
great  deal  to  do  with  success.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  numer- 
ous experiments  at  various  experiment  stations  have 
shown  that  no  one  breed  is  always  superior  to  the  other 
breeds.  The  only  exception  to  this  is  that  in  Canada  the 
Berkshires  excelled  the  other  breeds  in  a  noticeable 
number  of  instances.  Generally  it  is  better  to  select  the 


76  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

breed  most  raised  in  the  neighborhood,  as  it  gives  an 
opportunity  for  co-operation  with  neighbors,  and  is  apt  to 
result  in  better  prices  and  greater  interest.  It  is  impor- 
tant to  select  a  breed  adapted  to  the  particular  farm  or 
neighborhood,  with  special  reference  to  pasture  and  feed 
supply.  In  the  selection  of  a  breed  for  average  southern 
conditions  there  are  several  considerations  that  can  be 
generally  observed.  First,  white  breeds  should  be 
avoided  to  a  limited  extent  at  least.  Then  those  breeds 
that  are  of  the  extreme  lard  or  extreme  bacon  type 
should  be  avoided.  This  means  that  a  black  or  red  breed 
of  a  rather  intermediate  type  would  be  best  suited  to  aver- 
age southern  conditions,  and  as  it  happens  such  is  the  case. 

The  type  of  hog  best  suited  to  southern  conditions  is  a 
semi-grazer  type,  such  as  the  type  approached  by  the 
English  Berkshire  and  some  other  breeds.  All  of  our 
present  breeds  have  been  developed,  for  the  most  part,  to 
consume  large  quantities  of  concentrated  grains.  What 
is  needed  is  a  type  adapted  to  the  consumption  of  large 
quantities  of  green  forage  and  crops  such  as  we  can  easily 
raise  and  such  as  can  be  harvested  by  the  hogs  them- 
selves. It  is  a  fact  that  something  a  little  more  special- 
ized than  what  we  now  have  is  needed,  but  we  should 
adapt  one  of  our  present  breeds  to  meet  the  new  condi- 
tions. We  want  a  hog  with  a  larger  stomach  than  the 
present  types  have,  a  more  active  hog,  and  one  that  is 
strong  in  bone  and  that  stands  up  well  on  its  pasterns, 
and  one  that  is  able  to  search  out  a  living,  even  though  it 
may  be  difficult  to  find.  Some  of  our  native  swine 
possess  this  latter  characteristic  to  a  marked  degree,  but 
there  are  other  improvements  that  our  native  swine  do 
not  possess  that  we  desire. 


BREEDS    OF    SWINE  77 

Registration  of  swine. — Every  breeder  of  pure-bred 
swine  that  expects  to  sell  registered  stock  for  breeding 
purposes  will  find  it  necessary  to  keep  his  animals  regis- 
tered up.  It  is  a  simple  matter,  but  one  that  is  often 
neglected  because  of  the  fear  of  inability  to  make  out  the 
application  papers  correctly.  The  registering  of  pigs  is 
often  neglected,  and  later  one  finds  it  impossible  to  trace 
animals  and  have  them  recorded.  The  result  is  that  many 
animals  have  been  sold  as  pure  bred,  eligible  to  registry, 
for  which  it  has  been  impossible  to  trace  the  pedigree. 
One,  in  purchasing,  is  therefore  forced  to  assume  that  all 
animals,  especially  the  older  animals,  are  not  pure  bred 
unless  the  breeding  certificates  accompany  them.  The 
breeder  should  keep  all  breeding  animals  recorded  up  to 
date,  and  when  pigs  are  sold  the  papers  should  be  secured 
at  once  and  forwarded,  or  if  they  have  already  been 
secured,  they  should  be  transferred  at  once  to  the  new 
owner.  When  one  has  pigs  to  register  he  should  write  to 
the  secretary  of  the  association  in  which  the  sire  and  dam 
are  recorded,  and  he  will  send  the  blanks  and  instructions 
required  to  be  filled  out  before  pigs  can  be  registered. 
These  application  blanks  are  filled  out,  and  a  fee  per  head 
is  generally  charged,  which  is  to  cover  the  costs  of  regis- 
tering the  animals  and  maintaining  the  association. 

Practically  every  breed  has  an  association  that  looks 
after  the  registrations,  and  some  breeds  have  several. 
The  matter  of  keeping  up  the  registrations  is  one  that  the 
breeder  of  pure-bred  swine  cannot  afford  to  neglect. 

Purpose  of  record  associations. — The  work  of  the  swine 
record  associations  is  classified  under  two  heads.  The 
first  of  these  is  the  record  work,  and  the  second  is  the 
exploitation  work.  The  first  of  these  is  of  the  greatest 


78  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

importance,  since  it  has  to  do  with  the  improvement  and 
preservation  of  the  purity  of  the  breed.  The  success  of 
all  swine  breeders,  whether  breeders  of  pure-bred  swine 
or  producers  of  pork,  is  dependent  to  a  greater  or  lesser 
degree  on  the  swine  record  associations.  Were  it  not  for 
our  record  associations  our  present  perfection  would  soon 
be  lost  and  largely  absorbed  by  the  abundance  of  unim- 
proved swine.  The  recording  work  of  the  associations 
becomes  all  the  more  important  as  the  number  of  indi- 
viduals in  the  breed  increases.  These  swine  breeders' 
associations  are  generally  officered  by  men  who  have 
attained  more  or  less  distinction  in  some  way  in  connec- 
tion with  the  breed  they  serve.  Stability  and  perfection 
in  organization  are  two  important  essentials  for  complete 
success  of  the  swine  record  associations. 

Exploitation  work  of  record  associations. — Aside  from 
the  work  and  good  the  swine  record  associations  do  in 
keeping  the  records  of  breeding,  they  should  advance  the 
interests  of  the  breed  they  record  in  every  way  possible. 
Above  all,  they  should  encourage  perfection  and  improve- 
ment in  the  individuals  of  their  breed. 

Swine  shows  create  a  desire  for  better  stock,  but  they 
fail  to  show  wherein  one  can  profit  by  the  adoption  of  the 
pure  breds  or  improved  types  instead  of  the  unimproved 
scrubs.  The  farmer  must  be  able  to  see  the  economic 
value  of  making  any  change  before  he  makes  it.  One  way 
in  which  this  can  be  encouraged  is  for  a  method  to  be 
devised  whereby  the  reasons  for  making  awards  in  the 
show  ring  can  be  explained.  The  judges,  and  others, 
sometimes  try  to  supply  this  much  needed  information, 
but  the  record  associations  should  also  strive  to  show  the 
advantages  of  the  pure  bred  over  the  scrub.  The  breed- 


BREEDS    OF    SWINE 


79 


ers  must  be  encouraged  and  receive  appreciation  of  their 
accomplishments. 


12 


15 


1 — Snout 
2— Eye 
3— Face 
4— Ear 
5— Jowl 
6— Neck 
7 — Shoulder 
8 — Front  leg 
9— Hind  leg 


Points  of  the  hog. 

10— Chest 
11— Heart  girth 
12— Back 
13 — Loin 
14— Side 
IS^Tail 
16— Front   flank 
17— Rear  flank 


18— Point  of  hip 
19— Rump 
20— Belly 
21— Ham 
22— Stifle  joint 
23— Hock 
24— Foot 
25 — Dew-claws 


CHAPTER  IV 
JUDGING  SWINE 

Judging  swine. — The  judging  of  swine  is  the  exercising 
of  the  ability  to  distinguish  between  the  respective  merits 
of  swine  intended  for  special  purposes.  The  standards 
for  comparison  are  ideals.  A  good  judge  of  swine  must 
possess  a  clear  conception  of  what  constitutes  an  ideal. 
When  a  pen  of  swine  is  placed  before  him  to  be  judged 
he  must  be  able  to  recognize  values.  Especially  must  a 
judge  stick  to  his  ideal  type  and  have  the  conviction  of  his 
judgment  to  enable  him  to  stand  by  his  decision.  As  a 
rule,  the  judging  of  swine  is  best  learned  by  association 
with  a  good  judge.  The  judge  should  be  encouraged  to 
discuss  the  various  points  of  the  hogs  being  judged  in 
order  to  illustrate  the  standards  of  perfection  he  employs. 
If,  in  addition  to  this,  one  can  become  familiar  with  a 
good  herd,  the  standard  types  may  be  more  readily  fixed 
in  mind.  It  is  not  often  that  the  same  person  can  become 
a  good  judge  of  several  breeds,  but  almost  anyone  may 
become  a  fair  judge  of  swine  in  a  general  way  after  a 
short  time  of  practice  and  application. 

In  the  main,  we  judge  hogs  on  three  bases.  The  first 
of  these  is  the  market  hog  basis,  in  which  pork  is  the 
direct  object  sought.  In  the  second  place,  we  judge  for 
breeding  purposes,  in  which  the  production  of  swine  for 
slaughter  is  the  ultimate  object ;  we  sometimes  judge  on 
the  feeding  or  stock  hog  basis.  Since  at  the  bases  of  all 
swine  judging  is  ultimate  slaughter,  we  may  well  say  that 
the  second  and  third  bases  of  judging  are  merely  exten- 

80 


JUDGING    SWINE  81 

sions  of  the  first,  and  that  the  all-important  point  to  bear 
in  mind  is  the  ideal  market  type  hog. 

Producer's  ideal. — In  order  to  more  intelligently  and 
profitably  carry  out  the  business  of  pork  production,  one 
should  know  the  demands  of  the  market.  He  should  have 
firmly  fixed  in  his  mind  the  ideal  market  hog.  The  pro- 
ducer or  feeder  must  see  the  finished  product  in  his  mind 
before  the  animal  is  finished,  or  he  will  never  be  able  to 
attain  the  ideal.  To  appreciate  and  understand  what 
constitutes  the  ideal  market  hog,  one  should  go  to  the 
market  and  study  the  several  market  types  in  detail  and 
learn  which  types  are  in  greatest  demand.  The  best 
swine  shows  should  be  attended  and  special  study  should 
be  made  of  the  prize  winners.  Of  course,  the  demands  on 
different  markets  differ,  but  in  general  the  ideal  market 
type  is  similar,  and  one  should  learn  this  ideal  and 
attempt  to  produce  it  in  order  that  the  swine  he  produces 
may  bring  the  highest  market  price. 

Classification. — As  a  general  rule,  hogs  fall  into  one  of 
two  classes.  Most  of  the  swine  in  the  South  are  what  are 
known  as  the  lard  or  fat  hog  type.  Contrasted  with  this 
is  the  bacon  type,  that  is  used  primarily  in  the  production 
of  bacon.  The  two  types  are  of  different  conformation. 
The  lard  type  is  the  type  that  has  been  largely  developed 
in  the  Corn  Belt.  On  the  market  hogs  of  the  lard  type  go 
for  the  production  of  lard,  cheap  side  meat,  some  bacon, 
hams  and  shoulders.  The  bacon  types  of  hogs  furnish 
bacon  as  their  principal  cuts,  although  they  also  furnish 
hams  and  shoulders.  The  type  of  hog  best  suited  for  the 
South  is  not  the  extreme  lard  type,  but  is  an  intermediate 
between  the  lard  and  bacon  types,  a  type  that  is  a  good 


82  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

grazer  and  that  can  gather  its  own  living,  and  yet  one 
that  makes  good  use  of  the  feed  allowed  it.  Funda- 
mentally, the  requirements  in  judging  the  two  types  of 
hogs  are  the  same,  and  we  shall  therefore  largely  discuss 
the  subject  of  judging  from  the  standpoint  of  the  ideal 
market  type.  To  facilitate  this  study  and  the  judging  of 
swine  a  score  card  has  been  developed  to  cover  the  ideal 
market  type. 

Method  in  judging. — One  cannot  become  an  expert 
judge  of  swine  without  considerable  training.  It  is  true 
that  to  some  the  matter  of  judging  is  easier  than  to 
others.  However,  in  order  to  make  accurate  observa- 
tions and  become  expert  in  the  placing  of  swine,  it  is 
necessary  that  one  use  some  method  or  system  in  ascer- 
taining the  relative  merits  of  the  animals  being  judged. 
Above  all,  the  judge  must  know  what  constitutes  the 
ideal  type.  Probably  the  best  way  to  fix  this  in  mind  is 
by  means  of  the  score  card.  The  score  card  should  be 
used  freely,  especially  by  the  beginner.  Later  on,  as  one 
becomes  more  expert,  he  can  go  through  the  process  of 
scoring  in  his  mind,  and  then  later  make  the  placings 
according  to  the  mental  scores.  A  good  plan  to  follow  is 
to  take  up  first  the  matter  of  general  appearance,  under 
which  weight,  form,  condition  and  quality  should  each  be 
given  consideration.  Then  the  several  parts  of  the  head 
and  neck  should  be  looked  over,  followed  by  an  exami- 
nation of  the  forequarters,  body,  and  last  by  the  hind- 
quarters. The  ease,  facility  and  accuracy  with  which  the 
animals  can  be  correctly  placed  will  depend  on  the  skill 
and  expertness  of  the  judge. 

Pork  type. — In  conformation  the  ideal  market  hog  and 
the  ideal  pork  animal  are  identical.  The  general  expres- 


JUDGING    SWINE  83 

SCORE  CARD 

MARKET  HOGS 

Standard  Actual 
GENERAL  APPEARANCE— 30  per  cent 

Weight — According  to  age 4  

Form — Medium  depth,  breadth  and  length; 
smooth,  compact  and  symmetrical;  standing 

squarely  on  short  legs 8  

Quality — Hair  smooth  and  line,  with  strong,  clean 

bone;    general  refinement 5   •         

Condition — Finished,  deep,  even  covering  of  firm 

flesh.     Free  from  wrinkles 8  

Temperament — Quiet  and  placid 2  

Constitution — Snowing  indications  of  having  been 
a  profitable  feeder  and  now  in  a  healthy 
condition  3 

HEAD  AND  NECK— 6  per  cent 

Snout — Medium  length  and  breadth 1  

Eyes — Clear  and  not  sunken 1  

Face— Short,  with  full  cheeks.. 1 

Ears — Medium  sized  and  neatly  attached 1  

Jowl—Full  but   neat 1 

Neck — Thick  and  short,  smoothly  blended  to 
shoulder 1  

FOREQUARTERS— 12  per  cen 

Shoulders — Smooth    and    compact    on    top,    with 

medium  breadth  and  depth 8  

Breast— Full  breadth  but  neat 2 

Legs — Straight,  short,  strong,  standing  up  well  on 
short  pasterns 2  

BODY— 34  per  cent 

Chest — Deep,  wide,  large  heart  girth 4 

Sides — Deep,  full,  smooth,  medium  length 8 

Back — Broad,  strong,  evenly  covered 8  

Loin— Wide,  thick  and  strong—^ 10 

Belly — Straight,  smooth,  trim -  4 

HINDQUARTERS— 18  per  cent 

Hips — Broad  and  smooth 3 

Rump — Long,  level,  wide,  smooth 3 

Ham— Heavily  fleshed,  wide,  deep  and  full 10 

Legs — Straight,  short,  strong,  standing  up  on  short 

pasterns.    Bone  clean  and  hard 2 

Total  score  .  —  100  


84  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

sion  of  the  animal  should  be  neither  active  and  masculine, 
nor  should  it  be  passive  and  effeminate,  but  rather  inex- 
pressive and  negative,  with  a  tendency  toward  the 
passive  and  lymphatic,  characteristic  of  an  unsexed 
animal.  A  description  of  an  ideal  market  or  fat  hog  is 
given  later.  Proper  conformation  is  especially  important. 

Early  pork  types. — The  attainment  of  great  weights 
seems  to  have  been  the  chief  aim  of  our  earlier  producers 
of  pork.  This  idea  was  especially  fostered  in  the  show 
ring.  Today  the  market  discriminates  against  the  large 
and  excessively  fat  hog,  yet  the  demand  on  the  part  of 
the  average  fair  visitor  is  still  to  see  the  largest  hog.  The 
attainment  of  these  great  weights  was  a  little  more  ex- 
cusable in  the  former  days  of  cheap  feeds  than  now,  but 
with  the  market  demands  as  they  are,  and  with  the 
demand  for  meats  on  the  farm  from  small  hogs,  size  is  no 
longer  to  be  given  such  consideration  in  the  show  ring, 
and  the  standards  will  be  placed  more  along  utilitarian 
lines. 

The  ideal  market  hog. — The  ideal  porker  fulfills  in 
every  detail  the  requirements  of  the  purpose  for  which  it 
is  to  be  used  in  so  far  as  such  is  possible.  In  a  study  of 
the  ideal  fat  hog  we  look  at  his  value  as  an  animal 
designed  for  use  as  food,  and  do  not  take  into  account  the 
value  of  the  animal  as  a  breeder,  or  whether  or  not  the 
meat  he  carries  was  produced  at  a  profit  or  loss.  It  is 
therefore  the  butcher  and  consumer  of  pork  that  set  the 
standards  of  the  ideal  fat  hog,  but  these  standards  must 
not  be  contrary  to  economical  feeding  and  breeding. 
What  the  butcher  demands  is  what  should  concern  us. 
He  demands  conformation,  quality  and  finish,  a  high 


JUDGING    SWINE 


85 


dressing  percentage  and  a  high  percentage  of  high-priced 
cuts.  These  are  vital  points  with  the  butcher.  If,  in 
addition  to  the  above,  the  animal  possesses  quality,  the 
value  of  the  carcass  is  still  more  enhanced  because 


The  butcher  helps  establish  the  ideal  pork  type.    Courtesy  O.  F. 
Troutman  of  Kentucky. 

quality  is  associated  with  high  dressing  per  cent  and  high 
percentage  of  high-priced  cuts.  The  butcher  demands 
finish  or  fat  because  it  also  adds  to  the  dressing  per- 
centage and  increases  the  percentage  of  high-priced  cuts, 
for  it  is  mostly  in  the  higher-priced  cuts  that  an  excess  of 
fat  is  deposited.  In  short,  the  ideal  fat  hog  is  synony- 
mous with  the  ideal  pork  type. 


86 


SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 


General  appearance. — A  blocky  appearance  from  every 
angle  should  be  the  first  impression  gained  in  the  judging 
of  an  ideal  market  animal.  From  the  side  view  the  body 
is  rectangular,  with  lots  of  depth  and  not  too  much  length. 

The  body  is  wide  and  set 
squarely  on  short,  strong  legs. 
There  is  a  general  smooth- 
ness of  outline,  with  all  parts 
so  blending  and  balanced  as 
to  create  a  symmetrical  ap- 
pearance. The  top  line,  side 
line  and  underline  are  all 
straight  or  nearly  so,  and 
especially  should  a  straight 
edge  placed  along  the  side  of 
the  finished  market  hog  touch 
at  all  points  between  the 
shoulder  and  ham,  with  an 
absence  of  wrinkles.  In  short, 
the  appearance  should  be 
such  that  a  maximum  of 
valuable  meat  is  seen  with  as 


From  the  rear  the  fat 
hog  presents  a  compact 
appearance.  Courtesy 
B.  P.  Folk  of  North 
Carolina. 


small  amount  of  waste  as  is  possible. 

Weight. — This  was  formerly  a  much  more  important 
consideration  than  now.  Now  the  demands  of  the  mar- 
ket and  the  show  standards  have  so  changed  that  weight 
in  fat  hogs  is  of  secondary  importance.  Naturally,  with 
the  required  condition,  weight  will  largely  take  care  of 
itself.  For  pork  type  weights  between  175  and  200 
pounds  would  be  ideal.  Weight  should  always  be  con- 
sidered in  connection  with  age,  for  of  two  animals 
weighing  the  same,  and  other  things  being  equal,  the  one 


JUDGING    SWINE 


87 


that  is  the  younger  should  be  given  the  preference.  Fat 
hogs  should  never  weigh  less  than  a  pound  for  each  day 
of  age. 

What  constitutes  form. — A  judge  of  swine  must  appre- 
ciate what  constitutes  form  in  swine.     When  he  sees 


Wholesale  cuts  marked  on  Champion  Barrow  1913  Internation... 
Owned  by  lowana  Farms,  Davenport,  Iowa. 

excessive  development  in  certain  parts,  he  should  be  able 
to  tell  what  the  development  consists  of.  He  must  appre- 
ciate to  what  extent  form  is  due  to  fat  deposition.  Indi- 
viduals and  breeds  of  swine  vary  greatly  in  the  distribu- 
tion of  fat  and  lean  over  the  body.  In  this  respect  there 
is  a  great  difference  between  our  improved  and  unim- 
proved individuals.  The  unimproved  swine  are  inclined 
to  store  fat  in  those  parts  where  it  will  be  of  least  value, 
such  as  in  the  body  cavity  surrounding  the  several 


88  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

organs,  while  the  improved  swine  are  inclined  to  store  it 
more  in  those  parts  where  fat  has  value,  such  as  on  the 
back  and  hams,  and  between  the  muscles.  Thus  the 
rotund  and  smooth  form  which  a  market  hog  takes  on 
when  finished  is  due  to  a  large  extent  to  skeletal  and 
muscular  development,  but  to  a  greater  extent  to  the 
deposition  of  fat  over  and  in  the  muscles  and  under  the 
skin.  The  expert  judge  can  tell  by  the  touch  the  degree 
to  which  excessive  development  consists  of  fat  and  lean 
development.  To  do  this  it  is  necessary  that  he  under- 
stand thoroughly  the  anatomy  of  the  hog. 

The  Head  of  the  ideal  market  hog  should  be  short  and 
broad,  with  large,  bright,  clear  eyes  set  wide  apart,  and 
with  indications  of  a  gentle,  passive,  lymphatic  tempera- 
ment. The  nostrils  should  be  large  and  open,  general 
features  clean  cut,  indicative  of  breeding.  The  wide 
forehead  and  heavy  jowl,  with  medium  fine  ears,  are 
other  points  to  be  looked  for  in  the  head. 

The  Neck  should  be  very  short,  thick  and  meaty,  with 
a  neat  blending  at  the  head  and  shoulders.  Long  necks 
are  especially  undesirable.  The  arch  of  the  body  should 
continue  with  the  neck  in  such  a  manner  that  the  attach- 
ment of  body  and  neck  is  hardly  discernible.  The  jowl 
should  extend  from  the  jaw  beneath  the  entire  neck  to 
the  shoulder. 

The  Shoulders  should  be  smooth  and  rounding  on  top 
and  evenly  covered,  blending  perfectly  with  the  rest  of 
the  body.  The  tops  of  the  shoulder  blades  should  not  be 
prominent  and  stand  out,  but  should  be  nicely  rounded 
over  and  snug  and  neat.  Rough  shoulders  constitute  one 
of  the  most  common  defects  in  market  hogs,  as  they  tend 


JUDGING    SWINE  89 

to  make  the  development  back  of  the  shoulders  appear 
deficient,  and  they  indicate  an  excess  of  bone. 

Chest — On  the  fat  hog  the  development  of  the  chest  is 
of  minor  consideration  from  the  standpoint  of  the  de- 
mands of  the  butcher.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  pro- 
ducer, this  point  is  of  considerable  importance.  The 
chest  is  that  part  lying1  between  the  shoulders  and  imme- 
diately behind  them,  and  it  should  be  very  wide  and  deep. 
High  development  of  chest  is  associated  with  constitu- 
tion and  vigor.  A  narrow,  shallow  chest  with  a  small 
heart  girth  denotes  a  lack  of  constitution,  vigor  and 
vitality. 

The  Back  should  be  wide  and  smooth,  with  a  slight 
arch.  The  back  is  that  part  extending  from  the  tops  of 
the  shoulder  blades  to  the  last  rib.  It  furnishes  some 
high-priced  meats  and  should  receive  critical  considera- 
tion. Too  much  width,  due  to  natural  spring  of  rib  and 
fleshing,  is  impossible.  Deep  fleshing  is  most  to  be 
desired.  In  addition,  it  is  desirable  that  the  back  be 
short,  as  the  tendency  with  too  long  a  back  is  to  break 
down  in  the  top-line. 

The  Ribs  should  be  deep  and  well  covered,  with  deep, 
long  sides  that  will  cut  out  a  good  strip  of  bacon  or  fat 
bellies.  With  a  well-sprung  rib,  more  space  is  offered 
for  the  deposition  of  high-priced  meats. 

The  Loin  is  that  portion  lying  between  the  rear  edge 
of  the  back  and  the  hams.  It  has  no  ribs  below  it  other 
than  the  short,  floating  ribs  of  the  lumbar  vertebrae,  and 
it  consists  largely  of  heavy  muscles,  which  makes  it  cut 
some  of  the  highest-priced  meats.  Especially  should  the 
muscling  and  fleshing  of  this  part  be  the  heaviest.  The 


90  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

muscles  of  this  part  are  used  but  little,  which  makes  it 
tender. 

The  Hams,  above  all  else,  should  have  the  maximum 
of  development.  They  should  possess  great  length, 
depth  and  width.  The  general  width  of  the  body  should 
continue  into  the  hams.  The  depth  should  continue  to 


The  body  of  the  fat  hog  is  judged  largely  from  the  side 
view.    Courtesy  B.  P.  Folk  of  North  Carolina. 

the  hocks,  giving  a  square  appearance  there  instead  of 
the  usual  cat-ham  effect.  By  length  we  refer  to  the 
dimensions  of  the  ham  lengthwise  of  the  hog's  body. 
Especially  is  this  likely  to  be  deficient  in  the  region  of 
the  flank. 

The  Feet  and  Legs  should  be  strong  enough  to  main- 
tain the  weight  of  the  body;  they  should  be  placed 
squarely  on  the  four  corners  of  the  hog's  body,  and 
should  be  straight  and  short.  Fineness  of  bone  and 
smoothness  of  joints  are  indicative  of  quality,  while  rough, 
heavy-boned  legs  and  joints  indicate  a  lack  of  quality. 
With  hogs  that  have  to  graze  and  make  their  own  living 


JUDGING    SWINE  91 

there  is  a  strong  tendency  for  them  to  break  down  in  the 
pastern  joints  under  market  weight.  Strong,  short, 
straight  pasterns  are,  therefore,  to  be  sought  after. 

The  Body  should  be  compact,  low-set  and  broad,  as 
this  is  indicative  of  a  high  dressing  per  cent.  Especially 
is  breadth  desirable  in  the  upper  part  of  the  body,  for  here 
the  width  is  due  to  the  development  of  muscles  and  to 
the  deposit  of  fat  on  the  ribs.  The  top  line  of  the  body 
should  be  slightly  arched.  The  underline  should  be 
nearly  straight,  and  certainly  not  excessively  curved 
down.  The  side  lines  should  be  such  that  all  points  fill 
out  smooth  and  plump  to  maintain  straight  lines  all  along 
the  sides.  The  flanks  should  be  well  filled  out.  Paunchi- 
ness  in  particular  should  be  guarded  against. 

Quality  in  the  fat  hog. — Quality  and  refinement  are 
synonymous.  The  ideal  fat  hog  will  show  quality,  both 
externally  and  internally.  It  is  quality  of  pork  that  is 
sought  after,  and  this  cannot  be  obtained  without  exter- 
nal quality.  In  the  first  place,  fineness  of  bone  and  indi- 
cations of  a  high  dressing  per  cent  accompany  an  animal 
possessing  quality.  The  quality  of  the  meat  the  hog 
carries  is  indicated  by  the  quality  of  his  bone,  by  a  soft, 
pliable  hide  or  skin,  by  the  fineness  of  his  bristles,  and, 
above  all,  by  his  touch,  or  the  correct  feeling  of  flesh 
from  an  external  examination.  The  correct  touch  is 
difficult  of  description,  but  it  should  indicate  an  even, 
firm  fleshing,  with  an  ample  admixture  of  fat  and  lean. 

Extreme  quality  undesirable. — Extreme  quality  and 
refinement  are  had  only  with  the  sacrifice  of  constitution 
and  vigor.  This  condition  is  frequently  met  with  in  our 
highly  bred  hogs.  The  delicacy  of  make-up  in  such 


92  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

animals  greatly  reduces  their  breeding  capacities.  Es- 
pecially is  size  reduced.  This  condition  has  been  pro- 
duced by  the  demand  for  early-maturing  types.  The 
tendency  for  such  animals  is  to  produce  fat  in  abnormal 
quantities  before  they  have  matured  their  bodies. 
Quality  is,  of  course,  desirable  in  breeding  animals,  but 
we  must  be  careful  not  to  carry  it  to  extremes.  We  want 
the  maximum  of  quality  so  long  as  it  is  not  obtained  at 
the  expense  of  constitutional  vigor  and  size. 

Condition. — One  of  the  most  distinguishing  character- 
istics of  our  present  types  and  breeds  of  swine  is  the  even 
and  properly  mixing  of  the  fat  with  the  lean.  A  certain 
amount  of  fat  is  most  desirable,  but  an  excess  production 
of  fat  over  lean  is  to  be  guarded  against.  Hogs  in  low 
condition  have  a  firm, hard  feeling  along  the  back  and  lack 
in  width.  As  fattening  takes  place  they  widen  out  and 
become  more  yielding  to  the  touch.  The  degree  or  extent 
to  which  the  market  pork  should  be  fattened  will  depend 
to  some  extent  upon  the  market  and  to  some  extent  upon 
the  available  foodstuff.  In  the  fat  hog  condition  and 
finish  are  synonymous.  The  same  degree  of  condition  is 
not  sought  in  breeding  hogs  as  in  fat  or  market  hogs. 

Fleshing. — We  must  make  a  distinction  between  condi- 
tion and  fleshing.  By  condition  we  refer  to  the  amount  of 
fat  the  animal  carries.  By  fleshing  we  refer  to  the  amount 
of  lean  meat.  The  fleshing  should  be  present  in  abun- 
dance and  should  be  placed  on  smoothly.  An  evenly 
fleshed  thin  hog  will  fatten  smoothly,  while  an  unevenly 
fleshed  thin  animal  seldom  fattens  so  smoothly.  The 
fleshing  is  generally  indicated  by  a  firm  touch  along  the 
back,  on  the  sides  and  on  the  hams.  Heavy,  smooth 


JUDGING    SWINE  93 

fleshing  is  most  desirable,  for  it  indicates  a  profitable 
production  and  is  desired  by  the  consumer. 

Temperament  of  market  hogs. — Temperament  is  indi- 
cated for  the  most  part  by  the  features  of  the  head.  In 
general,  the  nose  should  be  short,  with  width  between 
the  ears  and  eyes,  with  a  full,  high  forehead,  indicative  of 
a  well-developed  nervous  system  and  strong  vitality. 
The  temperament  of  the  younger  and  unfinished  animals 
had  best  be  of  the  more  active  sort,  while  of  the  finished 
and  fattened  animal  it  had  best  be  of  the  passive  and 
lymphatic  order.  A  wide-open,  clear,  full  eye  is  indica- 
tive of  the  desirable  temperament,  and  a  few  glances  at 
the  head  and  eye  will  generally  convey  to  one  a  fairly 
accurate  measurement  of  the  temperament.  The  temper- 
ament is  also  indicated  by  the  carriage  of  the  hog  in 
walking  or  moving  about.  Excitable  and  nervous  hogs 
are  not  desirable,  for  the  quality  of  meat  is  apt  to  be 
affected. 

Style. — Style  on  a  finished  hog  has  a  market  value,  but 
as  a  rule  it  is  only  in  the  show  ring  that  it  is  taken  into 
account.  A  stylish  hog  stands  squarely  on  his  feet,  with 
a  slight  arch  to  his  back,  with  his  head  in  normal  posi- 
tion, but  with  his  eyes  and  ears  ready  to  catch  all  that 
goes  on.  His  style  is  also  manifested  in  the  manner  in 
which  he  handles  himself.  Such  a  hog  will  attract  buyers, 
for  he  forces  his  good  points  to  the  attention  of  the  buyer. 

Constitution. — The  hog,  whether  it  be  a  breeding 
animal  or  pork  maker,  must  have  constitution  and  vitality 
to  properly  support  the  digestive  and  other  bodily  func- 
tionings.  The  internal  organs  must  have  ample  room 
and  full  development,  for  they  play  an  important  part  in 


94  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

the  transfer  and  assimilation  of  nutrients  and  in  the 
elimination  of  waste,  and  the  proper  exercise  of  their 
functions  demands  a  vigorous  and  strong  constitution. 
Constitution  is  of  no  consequence  to  the  butcher,  but  it 
is  the  breeder  and  feeder  that  must  take  it  into  account. 
Especially  in  breeding  swine  is  it  of  importance,  for  they 
must  not  only  provide  the  needs  of  their  own  bodies,  but 
also  of  their  offspring.  Constitution  is  indicated  to  a 
large  extent  by  a  deep,  broad,  full  body  and  large  heart 
girth.  This  allows  of  ample  room  for  the  functioning  of 
the  vital  organs.  The  eyes  should  be  full,  bright  and 
clear.  The  bones  must  not  be  too  fine. 

Early  maturity. — Early  maturity  refers  to  the  ability  of 
the  animal  to  fatten  sufficiently  for  marketing  at  an  early 
age.  It  is  the  result  of  selection  over  many  decades,  and 
most  of  our  improved  breeds  of  swine  possess  the 
capacity  to  a  marked  degree.  The  tendency  in  breeding 
has  been  continually  toward  an  earlier  maturing  type. 
Formerly  hogs  were  not  marketed  until  one  year  of  age 
or  over.  Now  they  are  sent  to  market  at  from  six  to  nine 
months.  Indications  of  early  maturity  are  to  be  found 
largely  in  form  and  type.  General  refinement  and  com- 
pactness and  ideal  pork  form  are  compatible  with  early 
maturity.  Especially  should  the  heart  girth  and  chest 
development  be  ample.  Extreme  early  maturity  has  a 
tendency  to  weaken  the  constitution. 

Character  in  unsexed  swine. — Barrows  and  spayed 
sows  should  attain  a  certain  development  of  character 
that  is  inexpressive  of  either  sex.  They  should  be  neither 
masculine  nor  feminine.  When  unsexed  the  second- 
ary sexual  development  of  either  males  or  females  tends 


JUDGING   SWINE  95 

to  approach  the  same  condition.  The  castrated  males 
become  more  effeminate  and  the  spayed  females  more 
masculine.  The  ideal  pork  animal  should  have  an  inex- 
pressive character  and  resigned  attitude  suggestive  that 
the  only  purpose  for  which  it  existed  was  the  conversion 
of  feed  into  pork. 

Stock  hogs. — The  selection  of  stock  hogs  demands 
greater  skill  than  the  judging  of  fat  swine.  The  judge  of 
stock  hogs  must  possess  a  conception  of  the  animal  after 
it  has  passed  through  a  fattening  process.  He  must  not 
only  pick  the  animals  that  will  finish  into  the  ideal  mar- 
ket type,  but  due  consideration  must  be  given  to  the 
economy  of  production.  In  other  words,  he  must  be  able 
to  judge  the  fattening  and  gaining  capacity  of  the  animal. 
If  one  has  a  definite  knowledge  of  the  ideal  market  hog, 
the  selection  of  stock  hogs  and  the  production  of  the  ideal 
market  type  is  a  less  complicated  matter.  In  the  selec- 
tion of  swine  for  feeding  purposes  we  should  therefore 
look  for  indications  of  thrift  and  gaining  capacity,  a 
strong  constitution,  quality,  breeding,  and  a  disposition 
consistent  with  the  finishing  of  the  animal  into  an  ideal 
market  animal. 

Judging  breeding  swine. — Basically,  the  judging  of 
breeding  swine  and  market  swine  is  identical  in  so  far  as 
conformation  is  concerned.  With  breeding  swine,  how- 
ever, some  allowances  must  be  made  for  condition,  but 
with  a  lack  of  condition  there  must  be  indications  of  early 
maturity  and  ample  feeding  capacity.  In  breeding  swine 
there  are,  in  addition  to  the  above,  certain  things  directly 
related  to  breeding  capacity  which  must  be  doubly 
emphasized.  Constitutional  vigor  and  sexuality  are  of 


96 


SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 


greatest  importance.  In  the  judging  of  breeding  swine 
the  fact  should  ever  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  is  desired 
that  the  offspring  of  the  swine  being  judged  are  to  be 
made  into  perfect  ideal  fat  hogs,  and  all  the  character- 


Large  type  breeding  swine  are  popular  in  the  show  ring. 
Courtesy  Chas.  J.  Tanner  of  Kentucky. 

istics  of  the  parents  should  contribute  to  this  end.  Con- 
sequently, special  emphasis  must  be  placed  on  size,  con- 
formation, feet  and  legs,  quality,  sexuality  and  disposition. 

The  foundation  herd. — It  is  quite  necessary  that  we 
have  good  individuals  with  which  to  start  our  breeding 
operations  because  of  the  inherent  tendency  of  highly 
bred  animals  to  revert  to  a  poorer  type.  It  is  fco  be 
assumed  that  under  all  conditions  only  pure-bred  toars 
will  be  used,  and  that  pure-bred  sows  may  or  may  not  be 
used,  depending  on  the  ultimate  objects  sought.  In  either 


JUDGING   SWINE  97 

case  the  same  precautions  must  be  taken  in  the  selection 
of  the  breeding  animals.  One  must  not  accept  an  animal 
for  foundation  stock  simply  because  it  bears  a  pedigree. 
In  order  not  to  select  a  scrub  masquerading  as  a  highly 
bred  animal,  he  must  know  the  true  pork  type,  the  ideal 
market  animal.  Even  then  his  selections  may  go  amiss, 
for  the  animals  he  selects  may  not  breed  true  to  type. 
Therefore,  when  possible,  the  beginner  should  use  only 
young,  tried  animals,  even  though  they  may  cost  a  trifle 
more.  A  little  extra  money  is  always  well  spent  in  the 
purchasing  of  better  foundation  stock. 

Cost  of  breeding  swine. — The  cost  of  breeding  swine 
seems  almost  prohibitive,  and  most  of  us  are  tempted  to 
use  scrub  and  unimproved  animals  with  the  hopes  of 
improving  them.  This  is  not  only  true  of  the  sows,  but 
it  is  also  frequently  true  of  the  boars.  Most  of  us  do  not 
consider  the  increased  value  which  a  better  boar  puts  on 
each  of  his  pigs,  which  will  very  soon  more  than  cover 
the  small  additional  price.  As  a  rule,  a  few  extra  dollars 
spent  in  better  blood  is  well  spent ;  but,  of  course,  when 
one  is  spending  the  few  extra  dollars  for  better  blood  he 
wants  to  know  that  he  is  getting  what  is  being  paid  for. 
One  can  only  know  this  by  becoming  a  good  judge  of 
breeding  swine,  which  means  that  one  must  not  only  be 
able  to  recognize  type,  character  and  pork  qualities  in  a 
breeding  animal,  but  must  be  able  to  tell  within  a  fair 
degree  of  accuracy  the  kind  of  offspring  that  will  come 
from  such  an  animal. 

Selecting  breeding  swine. — Since  the  ultimate  use  of 
breeding  swine  is  the  production  of  ideal  porkers,  their 
selections  should  be  made  with  this  in  view.  Quick 


98  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

maturity  and  evidences  of  profitableness  should  be  given 
consideration.  In  order  to  be  profitable  they  must  of 
necessity  be  in  possession  of  a  vigorous  constitution. 
They  must  possess  breed  characteristics  and  breediness, 
or  sex  character.  In  addition  to  a  deep,  natural  flesh  and 
compact  form,  they  must  be  possessed  of  reproductive 
ability  and  be  capable  of  producing  their  like. 

Purchasing  breeders. — After  the  selection  of  the  breed- 
ing herd  from  which  it  seems  desirable  to  make  some 
purchases,  one  should,  if  possible,  visit  the  herd  and 
carefully  inspect  the  animals  offered  for  sale,  and  find  out 
what  he  can  of  their  type  and  ancestry.  He  should  then 
make  his  selections,  being  guided  by  the  purposes  for 
which  the  animals  are  desired,  by  individual  preferences 
and  by  the  information  furnished  by  the  breeder.  An 
honest  breeder  will  not  misrepresent  his  stock  in  order 
to  make  a  sale.  Under  no  circumstances  should  a  slight 
difference  in  price  influence  the  purchaser  to  buy  inferior 
animals,  for  it  has  been  demonstrated  time  and  again  that 
it  pays  to  use  only  the  best  in  starting  a  breeding  herd  of 
pure-bred  swine. 

How  to  make  selections. — While  we  can  select  for  con- 
formation, type  and  early  maturity,  we  must  also  base 
our  selections  on  performance,  or  the  ability  to  make 
good  use  of  feed  and  rapid  gains  up  to  the  limit  of  the 
capacity  of  the  animal.  In  the  case  of  swine  greater  skill 
is  required  to  select  for  performance  than  in  the  case  of 
some  other  animals.  In  race  horses,  for  instance,  where 
all  is  sacrificed  for  speed,  the  matter  of  selection  on  the 
performance  basis  is  a  simple  matter.  With  swine  in  the 
feed  lot,  the  closest  observation  and  the  exercise  of  the 


JUDGING  SWINE  99 

greatest  skill  are  required.  The  show  yards  and  sale  rings 
assist  some  in  the  making  of  these  selections,  but  for  the 
most  part  the  breeder  will  have  to  depend  on  his  own 
observation  and  judgment. 

Age  of  breeding  swine. — In  the  selecting  and  purchas- 
ing of  swine  for  breeding  purposes  there  are  in  the  main 
two  methods  that  can  be  employed  so  far  as  age  is  con- 
cerned. The  first  is  to  purchase  young  animals  and  grow 
them  to  maturity,  and  the  other  is  to  purchase  older 
animals  that  have  been  used  for  breeding  purposes.  The 
first  of  these  methods  is  frequently  the  most  economical 
method  of  purchasing,  but  one's  expectations  are  not 
always  fulfilled,  and  the  animals  may  not  develop  as  they 
should.  The  second  method  has  the  advantage  of  being 
a  little  surer,  which  in  the  long  run  may  be  the  best 
policy.  In  selecting  older  animals  one  must  be  careful 
to  get  breeding  animals  that  have  been  merely  tried  out 
and  have  not  been  worn  out  through  several  seasons  of 
breeding.  The  most  profitable  ages  are  between  two  and 
seven  years  for  either  sex. 

Mature  breeding  swine. — The  reproductive  functions 
of  swine  are  not  fully  developed  until  about  the  time  the 
individual  begins  to  mature.  The  sexual  organs  and 
instinct  develop  rapidly  as  maturity  approaches,  and  we 
say  the  breeding  age  has  arrived.  Gilts  generally  arrive 
at  this  age  a  month  earlier  than  males.  The  age  at  which 
the  breeding  powers  become  manifested  depends  on 
breed,  method  of  handling,  feeding  and  sex.  With  the 
gilt  the  first  period  is  co-existent  with  the  bursting  of 
the  Graffian  follicle  and  liberation  of  the  first  ova.  With 
the  male  the  arrival  at  breeding  age  is  a  more  gradual 


100  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

process.  By  no  means  should  swine  be  permitted  to 
exercise  their  breeding  powers  as  soon  as  they  are  mani- 
fested. Gilts  should  not  be  bred  before  they  are  eight 
months  of  age,  for  before  that  time  they  have  not  reached 
the  age  of  sufficient  sexual  maturity,  and  the  age  of 
somatic  maturity  is  not  reached  for  some  months  after 
this  age.  Boars  should  likewise  not  be  used  to  any  extent 
before  this  age,  and  they  should  then  be  used  only  very 
lightly  until  after  they  are  one  year  of  age. 

Early  maturity  in  breeding  swine. — In  the  selection  of 
our  boars  and  sows  the  early-maturing  qualities  must  be 
sought  so  that  they  can  be  transmitted  to  the  offspring, 
for  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  grower  and  butcher  that  the  hogs  mature  and 
fatten  at  the  earliest  possible  age.  Especially  should 
boars  be  selected  largely  on  the  basis  of  their  early 
fattening  propensities. 

Conformation. — The  conformation  of  breeding  swine 
must  therefore  be  similar  to  that  of  the  ideal  pork  animal, 
and  must  give  the  indications  of  being  able  to  produce 
the  ideal  market  animal,  either  through  feeding  or 
through  a  process  of  reproduction  and  feeding.  To  be 
sure,  the  condition  of  breeding  swine  and  the  ideal  mar- 
ket animal  are  different.  In  the  conformation  of  the 
breeding  swine,  as  compared  with  the  ideal  porker,  there 
are  other  considerations.  In  the  breeding  animals  sex 
character  will  cause  variations  in  boars  and  sows  that 
will  not  be  found  in  the  ideal  market  animal.  The  body 
of  the  sow  will  be  longer,  with  a  greater  development  in 
the  hindquarters,  and  the  boar  will  have  a  seemingly 
surplus  development  of  the  forequarters,  head  and  neck. 


JUDGING   S' 


Weights. — The  tendency  at  present  is  towards  market 
hogs  of  medium  size.  This  preference  is  probably  due 
to  the  facts  that  the  meat  is  better  and  the  cost  of  pro- 
ducing is  less  than  in  the  large  hogs.  The  production  of 
the  second  hundred  pounds  in  weight  costs  much  more 
than  the  first  hundred,  and  the  cost  increases  with  the 
size.  The  weights  of  swine  are  dependent  on  so  many 
factors  that  an  approximation  of  average  weights  is  diffi- 
cult. The  age,  feeding,  sex,  breeding,  condition  and 
quality  influence  the  weight.  The  following  table  may 
be  considered  as  average  weights  under  different  condi- 
tions of  feeding  and  care. 

6  months  12  months  18  months 

1.  Roughed 100  200  275 

2.  Medium  fed 200  350  450 

3.  Full  fed 250  450  550 

4.  Show  fed 300  500  600 

A  good  standard  for  mature  boars  in  breeding  condi- 
tion is  from  450  to  500  pounds,  and  for  sows  from  75  to 
100  pounds  less  than  the  boars. 

Variation  in  weight. — While  we  have  certain  standards 
of  weight  according  to  age,  there  are  other  factors,  such 
as  breed  and  sex,  that  play  a  part.  The  more  common 
breeds  will  rank  in  size  in  about  the  following  order,  from 
the  heavier  to  the  lighter  breeds :  Large  Yorkshire, 
Chester  White,  Duroc-Jersey,  Tamworth,  Poland-China, 
Berkshire,  Hampshire,  Middle  Yorkshire,  Essex,  and 
Small  Yorkshire.  The  boars  generally  weigh  from  one- 
sixth  to  one-quarter  more  than  the  sows.  Swine  are 
usually  nearly  mature  at  two  years  of  age,  although  they 
will  continue  to  grow  some  after  that  age.  If  slowly  fed, 
they  may  take  as  much  as  four  years  in  which  to  mature. 


PRODUCTION 


Condition  of  breeding  swine.  —  High  condition  is  in- 
compatible with  the  best  results  in  breeding.  In  general, 
the  breeding  animals  should  possess  an  abundance  of 
natural  fleshing  rather  than  high  condition.  Under  no 
circumstances  should  they  be  excessively  fat,  nor  should 
they  be  excessively  lean.  Show  animals  in  show  condi- 
tion are  nearly  always  below  par  in  breeding  capacity. 
Especially  is  high  condition  to  be  guarded  against  in  the 
sow,  as  an  excess  of  internal  fat  is  apt  to  result  in  crowd- 
ing these  organs  and  shutting  off  the  normal  blood 
supply,  preventing  normal  functioning.  Also,  high  con- 
dition causes  a  lymphatic  disposition,  which  is  not  con- 
ducive to  the  most  desirable  breeding  qualities.  Es- 
pecially is  this  true  of  boars,  and  they  should  never  be 
fattened  to  the  point  where  they  become  sluggish  and 
inactive. 

Size  and  vigor.  —  In  the  selection  of  swine  for  breeding 
purposes  size  and  vigor  are  vital  points  to  be  considered, 
as  they  largely  control  heavy  and  economical  gains. 
Vigor  is  especially  to  be  desired  to  conform  to  our 
grazing  methods.  Vigorous  hogs  are  also  less  subject  to 
parasites  and  diseases  in  general.  As  to  size,  what  is 
wanted  is  not  a  large  animal,  but  we  do  want  a  large 
one  for  its  age,  for  this  indicates  early  maturity  and 
economical  production.  We  can  only  have  early- 
maturing  animals  when  they  have  proper  vigor  and 
vitality.  Thus,  size  and  vigor  are  of  importance  from  the 
standpoint  of  economical  production,  and  these  qualities 
must  be  taken  into  account  in  the  selection  of  our  breed- 
ing animals  in  the  future  if  we  are  to  secure  hogs  best 
suited  to  our  conditions. 


JUDGING   SWINE  103 

Importance  of  strong  bone. — In  our  judging  and  selec- 
tion of  breeding  swine  greater  attention  will  have  to  be 
given  to  strength  and  quality  of  bone  than  has  been  given 
in  the  past.  This  comes  from  a  changed  method  of  pro- 
duction, in  which  we  will  no  longer  do  extensive  lot 
feeding,  but  will  produce  our  pork  by  means  of  grazing 
crops.  It  is  not  so  much  a  great  size  of  bone  that  is 
desired  as  moderate  size  with  quality.  Too  much  size 
without  quality  would  not  be  desirable  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  butcher.  A  strong  bone  is  wanted  to  support 
the  weight  of  the  animal  in  the  larger  amount  of  walking 
that  will  have  to  be  done  in  the  gathering  of  its  food 
supply. 

Vitality  and  prolificacy. — In  a  herd  of  breeding  swine 
vitality  and  prolificacy  are  of  considerable  importance, 
and  on  them  to  a  large  extent  depends  the  outcome. 
Care  and  attention  are  continually  required  to  maintain 
the  required  vitality  and  prolificacy,  and  under  the  condi- 
tions with  which  we  surround  most  of  our  pure-bred 
herds  there  is  a  strong  tendency  toward  over-refinement. 
This  lack  of  vitality  and  prolificacy  is  not  so  noticeable 
in  the  body  form  as  in  the  weakened  breeding  powers 
manifested.  In  the  sows,  with  a  lack  of  these  qualities 
we  have  irregular  and  abortive  breeders,  lessened  fe- 
cundity, and  low  milk  secretion.  These  weaknesses  seem 
to  accentuate  themselves  as  they  go  from  one  generation 
to  the  next,  but  fortunately  they  are  ultimately  auto- 
matically eliminated. 

Breed  type. — All  our  breeding  swine  should  possess 
some  breed  type,  whether  the  object  is  pork  production 
or  the  production  of  breeding  animals.  By  breed  type  we 


104  SOUTHERN    PORK   PRODUCTION 

refer  to  the  indications  that  the  individual  belongs  to  a 
specific  breed,  or,  that  the  blood  of  a  specific  breed  pre- 
dominates. The  possession  of  this  breed  type  is  a  good 
indication  of  prepotency.  Any  pork  animal  should 
possess  these  indications  for  at  least  one  of  the  improved 
breeds;  otherwise,  it  may  safely  be  assumed  that  a  poor 
pork  type  exists,  for  a  good  pork  type  seldom  exists 
without  breed  type.  Especially  should  breeding  swine  be 
typical  and  characteristic  as  to  breed  type. 

Prepotency. — Prepotency  refers  to  the  ability  of 
breeding  animals  to  impress  their  own  likeness  upon 
their  offspring.  While  it  is  not  definitely  recognizable 
from  the  appearance,  it  should  be  one  of  the  distinctive 
characteristics  of  good  breeding  animals.  An  animal 
with  proper  sexual  development,  breed  type  and  breeding 
is  very  apt  to  be  prepotent.  When  two  animals  are 
crossed,  the  one  that  impresses  its  kind  more  strongly  on 
the  offspring  is  said  to  be  more  prepotent.  Prepotency 
is  one  of  the  bases  of  our  progress  in  improvement  in 
swine  breeding.  Breeding  animals  that  are  not  prepotent 
are  said  to  be  impotent,  or,  in  other  words,  they  are  not 
able  to  stamp  their  type. 

Quality  in  breeding  swine. — Good  quality  is  especially 
evidenced  by  ability  to  make  good  use  of  feed.  Other 
indications  of  quality  are  to  be  found  in  the  bone,  bristle 
and  hide.  Usually  the  hog  of  good  quality  makes  a  good 
appearance,  and  by  his  smooth  skin,  bright  eye  and  gen- 
eral disposition  makes  a  good  impression.  In  addition  to 
being  masculine,  our  breeding  boars  should  possess  a 
certain  degree  of  quality.  His  features  should  be  clear 
cut  and  symmetrical,  showing  strength  and  character 


JUDGING  SWINE  105 

without  coarseness.  The  breed  characteristics  should  be 
pronounced.  The  sow  likewise  should  be  more  than 
effeminate.  She  should  be  in  possession  of  the  quality 
that  is  necessary  in  the  make-up  of  a  perfect  brood  sow. 
She  should  show  general  refinement  and  symmetrical 
and  clear-cut  features,  combined  with  proper  breed 
characteristics.  Quality  and  breed  character  go  hand  in 
hand. 


CHAPTER  V 
SHOWING  SWINE 

The  show  ring. — There  is  probably  no  other  single 
institution  connected  with  the  swine  industry  that  has 
made  for  more  real  progress  than  the  show  ring.  With- 
out it  our  present  day  swine  would  have  presented  noth- 
ing like  the  uniformity  of  type  and  general  perfection 
which  they  now  possess.  The  show  ring  has  been  the 
guiding  star  for  the  breeders  of  pure-bred  swine  and  to 
the  producers  of  market  swine  to  a  less  degree.  The 
producer  of  market  hogs  can  get  much  from  the  market 
as  to  the  demands  and  standards  of  the  times,  but  the 
breeder  of  pure-bred  swine  must  rely  on  the  show  ring. 
It  has  been  the  show  rings  that  have  made  the  standards 
of  perfection  toward  which  we  have  been  striving.  They 
tended  to  standardize  and  systematize  the  goal  of  per- 
fection toward  which  all  breeders  have  been  striving, 
which  has  been  largely  responsible  for  the  progress  that 
has  been  attained.  The  show  ring  has  given  the  indi- 
vidual breeders  an  insight  into  what  the  best  swine 
judges  have  considered  the  ideal  types.  In  addition,  the 
friendly  rivalry  of  the  show  ring  has  been  a  great  stimulus 
in  bringing  about  the  production  of  continually  better 
individuals.  The  sporting  instinct  of  man  has  been 
aroused  by  the  competition  in  the  show  ring.  All  in  all, 
the  show  ring  has  been  a  wonderful  stimulus  for  the  good 
of  swine  breeding,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  more  and 
more  of  the  small  breeders  can  utilize  this  institution  in 
the  interests  of  their  worK 

106 


SHOWING   SWINE 


107 


Advertising. — One  of  the  chief  advantages  to  be 
derived  from  the  showing  of  swine  is  the  advertising  that 
is  secured.  If  the  breeder  properly  fits  and  shows  his 
products,  he  will  have  no  difficulty  in  placing  his  animals 
before  the  public  in  a  way  that  will  be  a  credit  to  himself 
and  the  herd.  The  great  advantage  of  this  method  of 
advertising  is  that  if  we  are  breeding  swine  of  sufficient 
merit  to  win  they  receive  a  stamp  of  approval  from  the 
judge.  This  is  one  of  the  cheapest  ways  we  have  to  do 


Mississippi  State  Fair  Grand  Champion  sows  of  1915,  owned 
by  E.  J.  McCall  of  Louisiana. 

our  advertising,  for  when  the  animals  really  possess  merit 
the  winnings  or  prize  money  will  more  than  offset  the 
expenses  attached  to  the  showing.  In  the  past  the  value 
of  the  live  stock  show  as  an  advertising  method  has  not 
been  recognized  as  fully  as  it  deserved.  If  animals  really 
possess  merit,  they  always  sell  for  more  if  they  have 
winnings  back  of  them,  and  nothing  adds  to  the  value  of 
an  animal  any  quicker  than  to  have  won  over  hot  compe- 
tition at  one  of  the  better  live  stock  shows. 

Reputation. — One's  reputation  as  a  breeder  depends  to 
a  large  extent  upon  the  show  ring  winnings  he  has  made 
with  animals  of  his  own  breeding.  This  is  one  of  the 


108  SOUTHERN    PORK   PRODUCTION 

chief  advantages  to  be  derived  by  the  swine  breeder  from 
the  show  ring.  Aside  from  the  advertising  which  his 
herd  and  animals  receive,  his  reputation  as  a  breeder  is 
at  stake,  as  it  were,  and  the  show  ring  offers  an  oppor- 
tunity which  cannot  well  be  ignored  by  one  who  wishes 
to  make  his  reputation  as  a  breeder  of  the  most  approved 
types.  A  reputation  built  on  attainments  in  the  show 
ring  is  a  lasting  one  if  attained  honestly.  It  has  an 
immense  monetary  value  to  the  swine  breeder  if  properly 
utilized. 

Educational  value  of  the  show. — In  addition  to  the 
reputation  and  advertising  to  be  gained  by  showing  the 
products  of  one's  efforts  at  breeding,  there  are  other 
advantages  to  be  derived.  One's  general  store  of  knowl- 
edge is  added  to  along  the  line  of  swine  breeding,  be- 
cause he  cannot  associate  with  other  breeders  without 
absorbing  valuable  information  from  them.  He  sees 
what  others  are  doing,  and  he  is  thereby  enabled  to  con- 
duct his  own  operations  more  advantageously.  This 
educational  feature  of  the  show  ring  is  one  of  the  most 
important ;  it  lights  the  way,  so  to  speak ;  standards  are 
set;  friendly  rivalries  stimulate  one  to  greater  accom- 
plishments, and  one  becomes  educated  as  to  what  is 
expected  of  a  swine  breeder  and  as  to  how  best  go  about 
the  production  of  an  ideal. 

Show  ring  standards. — The  question  sometimes  arises 
in  the  show  ring  as  to  where  we  are  to  go  to  secure  our 
standards  in  making  awards.  It  is  very  obvious  that 
since  we  are  producing  something  to  meet  the  discrimi- 
nating demands  of  the  market,  we  should  go  there  to 
seek  our  standards.  That  has  been  one  great  difficulty 


SHOWING   SWINE  109 

we  have  had  in  the  past.  We  have  failed  in  a  great  many 
instances  to  secure  judges  who  were  familiar  with  the 
demands  of  the  markets  for  which  they  were  making 
awards.  The  judge  should  be  absolutely  familiar  with 
what  the  market  demands  and  is  willing  to  pay  the  most 
for.  The  markets  are  constantly  changing  in  what  they 
demand,  because  the  pork-producing  industry  is  evo- 
luting.  The  evoluting  process  is  slow  because  our  herds 
cannot  be  changed  on  short  order.  If  we  are  to  make 
progress  in  breeding,  we  must  depend  on  the  awards  of 
judges  to  show  what  the  market  demands,  and  thus  the 
responsibility  resting  on  a  judge  in  the  show  ring  is  much 
greater  than  we  might  consider  on  first  thought. 

The  profitable  type. — The  hogs  that  are  fitted  for  show 
are  not  necessarily  the  ideal  farm  type.  They  usually 
carry  such  an  excess  of  fat  as  to  preclude  profits  from 
their  production.  They  do  show,  however,  the  type  that 
is  desired,  for  they  could  never  attain  the  condition  they 
carry  were  they  not  of  the  proper  type.  •  Therefore,  we 
may  with  safety  depend  on  the  show  ring  to  indicate  the 
most  desirable  types  for  farm  use.  Especially  does  the 
show  ring  point  out  to  us  those  types  which  fatten  most 
readily  and  mature  at  an  early  age.  In  farm  practice  the 
hogs  we  grow  for  the  market  must  be  able  to  develop  and 
grow  rapidly  from  the  start  and  be  susceptible  to  fatten- 
ing at  almost  any  age. 

Important  shows. — There  are  numerous  swine  shows 
held  over  the  South,  and  some  of  them  rank  well  with  the 
shows  held  farther  north  in  what  has  been  considered  the 
swine  belt  proper.  Of  course,  the  better  the  show  which 
one  attends,  or  at  which  one  shows,  the  greater  are  to  be 


110  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

the  rewards  in  case  of  winning.  Some  county  and  local 
fairs  offer  small  premiums,  and  where  the  interest  and 
competition  are  sufficient  a  great  deal  of  good  can  be 
derived  from  showing  at  and  attending  these  local  fairs. 
The  state  fairs  are,  however,  better  in  that  they  cover  a 
broader  field  and  give  one  more  of  a  real  insight  into  the 
use  and  value  of  the  show  ring.  Every  southern  state  has 
its  state  fairs,  and  some  have  more  than  one.  In  addition 
to  these  state  fairs  there  are  other  fairs  of  a  wider  scope, 
such  as  the  Feeders'  and  Breeders'  Show,  which  is  held 
at  Fort  Worth,  Tex. ;  the  Southeastern  Fair  that  is  held 
in  Atlanta,  Ga. ;  the  Tri-State  Fair,  held  at  Memphis, 
Tenn.;  the  Alabama-Mississippi  Fair,  held  at  Birming- 
ham; and  similar  fairs  that  offer  exceptional  oppor- 
tunities for  southern  breeders  to  obtain  the  advantages 
to  be  derived  from  use  of  the  show  ring ;  and  all  breeders 
should  attend  one  or  more  of  the  best  of  these  shows, 
whether  they  show  or  not. 

Making  entries. — In  order  that  one  may  show  an 
animal  in  one  of  the  better  classes  of  shows  it  is  generally 
necessary  that  entry  blanks  of  the  proper  sort  be  filled 
out.  These  blanks  are  usually  furnished  free  by  the  sec- 
retary of  the  fair  association.  On  them  is  a  place  for  the 
name  of  the  animal,  its  date  of  birth,  breed,  registration 
number,  the  class  in  which  it  is  desired  to  show  it,  and 
other  spaces  to  supply  whatever  other  information  is 
needed.  In  the  entering  of  animals  it  is  generally 
possible  to  enter  them  in  several  competitions.  When  an 
animal  really  possesses  merit  and  stands  a  chance  of 
winning  in  more  than  one  class,  it  is  best  to  make  the 
entry  that  way  where  permissible.  Prize  money  some- 
times comes  easier  than  it  looks,  and  with  good  indi- 


SHOWING   SWINE  111 

viduals  and  where  the  competition  is  not  too  great,  one 
can  reasonably  expect  the  prize  money  to  pay  the  ex- 
penses incidental  to  fitting  and  showing.  Some  breeders 
esteem  the  show  ring  so  greatly  that  they  will  have  out 
as  many  as  three  or  four  herds,  that  will  remain  out  an 
entire  season,  going  from  one  fair  to  another.  In  the 
making  of  entries  one  will  be  guided  to  a  great  extent  by 
the  particular  show,  for  each  makes  its  own  rules  govern- 
ing exhibits.  As  a  rule,  the  classification  made  to  cover 
the  different  classes  that  will  be  shown  is  arbitrary,  but 
a  complete  classification  for  the  showing  is  given  as 
follows.  There  are  but  few  of  the  fairs  that  have  all  of 
these  classes. 

SHOW  CLASSES 

BOARS  Sows  HERDS 

Aged  boars  Aged  sows  Aged  herds 

Senior  yearlings  Senior  yearlings  Bred  by  exhibitor 

Junior  yearlings  Junior  yearlings  Owned  by  exhibitor 

Senior  boar  pigs  Senior  sow  pigs  Young  herds 

Junior  boar  pigs  Junior  sow  pigs  Produce  of  sow 

Senior  Grand  Senior  Grand  Get  of  boar 

Champion  Champion  Litters  (4) 

Junior  Champion  Junior  Champion 

Fitting  for  the  show. — In  the  fitting  of  swine  for  the 
show  there  is  an  opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  great 
skill.  It  is  well  recognized  that  in  order  to  properly  fit 
swine  both  skill  and  experience  are  necessary.  Above 
all,  the  feeding  must  be  begun  in  time.  The  feeds  must 
not  only  be  of  the  right  sort  for  the  purposes  desired,  but 
the  animal  will  require  continual  watching  from  start  to 
finish.  The  feeding  must  be  systematic  and  judgment 
must  be  used.  In  order  to  feed  properly  one  must  not 
only  have  the  animals  to  feed,  but  he  must  be  supplied 
with  the  right  sort  of  feeds  and  have  the  right  sort  of 


112  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

equipment,  in  the  way  of  lots,  pens,  troughs,  sheds,  etc. 
The  whole  thing  resolves  itself  into  the  proper  feeding 
and  handling  of  .the  animal  so  that  it  will  make  use  of 
feed  up  to  the  limit  of  its  capacity.  In  the  fitting  for  the 
show  more  is  required  than  to  merely  attain  a  certain 
condition.  The  hair,  skin,  feet,  disposition  and  form  will 
have  to  be  carefully  watched.  To  fit  swine  properly  for 
the  show  is  no  simple  matter  and  is  one  at  which  great 
skill  can  be  exercised. 

Equipment  for  show  fitting. — Not  much  equipment  is 
required  in  fitting  swine  for  show  purposes  above  that 
which  is  ordinarily  to  be  had  on  a  hog  farm.  First,  it  is 
necessary  to  have  pigs  or  hogs  of  breeding  sufficient  to 
make  it  possible  for  them  to  be  developed  into  prize 
winners.  Next,  which  is  equally  important,  is  the  supply 
of  the  proper  kind  of  feeds.  The  kind  will  depend  on  the 
kind  of  hogs  to  be  fed  and  the  length  of  time  the  feeding 
is  to  take  place.  After  that,  some  shelter  or  shed  space 
will  have  to  be  available,  for  show  hogs  cannot  be  run  in 
the  sunshine  and  weather  to  any  great  extent,  as  it  injures 
the  hair  and  skin.  Also,  proper  exercising  pens  or  pad- 
docks must  be  available,  these  preferably  to  be  sown  to 
grazing  crops.  In  addition  to  this,  a  place  for  washing 
the  hogs,  oils,  brushes,  soaps,  straw,  crates,  troughs,  and 
the  like  will  have  to  be  provided.  As  stated,  most  of 
these  can  be  had  on  the  average  farm,  and  what  little 
extra  is  required  for  proper  fitting  will  more  than  repay 
for  itself. 

Feeding  for  the  show. — It  is  necessary  to  feed  liberally 
and  judiciously  when  feeding  for  show  purposes.  The 
use  of  foodstuffs  conducive  to  an  excessive  production  of 


114  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

fat  should  be  avoided,  since  such  feeding  is  apt  to  result 
in  an  abnormal  development  of  fat  tissue  in  comparison 
with  the  lean.  The  distribution  of  fat  and  lean  in  the 
carcass  can  be  influenced  to  a  limited  extent  by  the 
method  of  feeding.  Proper  covering  and  firmness  of 
flesh  are  most  desirable.  Unnecessary  expenses  should  be 
avoided.  Vermifuges,  tonics  and  appetizers  may  be  used 
to  advantage.  The  feeding  of  sugar,  molasses,  and  starch 
is  an  expensive  procedure  that  is  seldom  justifiable.  The 
cooking  of  feeds  is  also  of  questionable  value.  The  em- 
ployment of  some  of  these  and  similar  methods  is  some- 
times justifiable.  Of  course,  in  show  fitting  one  is  not 
justified  in  figuring  too  closely  on  costs  of  gains,  and 
especially  in  the  case  of  breeding  swine  when  very  high 
prices  may  obtain.  Linseed  meal  is  a  food  that  we  are 
justified  in  using  in  the  South  in  show  fitting  only.  It  is 
very  rich  in  protein  and  generally  contains  considerable 
oil,  which  is  supposed  to  have  a  very  beneficial  influence 
on  the  skin  and  bristle. 

Greater  skill  is  required  in  the  proper  fitting  of  breed- 
ing swine  than  fat  or  market  swine.  In  the  fitting  of 
breeding  swine  considerable  exercise  must  be  allowed. 
The  all-important  thing  is  to  attain  the  proper  condition 
for  winning  in  the  competition  without  injuring  the 
breeding  qualities.  In  the  fitting  of  market  hogs  or  fat 
hogs  conformation  and  condition,  combined  with  the 
right  quality,  are  all  essential.  In  the  case  of  either  class 
of  swine,  it  must  ever  be  borne  in  mind  that  after  a  hog 
is  once  fitted  for  the  show  he  must  not  be  allowed  to 
decline  in  condition,  for  with  a  decline  in  condition  a 
certain  coarseness  of  fleshing  and  bone  is  brought  about 
that  can  never  be  overcome  by  the  most  judicious  feeding. 


SHOWING    SWINE  115 

Over-fitting  for  showing. — Swine  that  have  been  fitted 
f'oi  the  shows  are  nearly  always  too  fat  to  have  been  pro- 
duced at  a  profit.  For  this  reason  the  show-yard 
standards  and  the  commercial  standards  are  not  exactly 
in  accord.  The  quantity  and  quality  of  fat  usually  de- 
manded in  the  show  ring  are  not  only  too  great  to  have 
been  produced  at  a  profit,  but  the  show  hog  is  generally 
in  too  high  a  condition  to  suit  the  average  consumer  of 
pork.  In  this  respect  the  show  yards  are  inclined  to  set 
the  wrong  example  for  the  grower.  Of  course,  in  fitting 
for  the  show  the  matter  of  cost  is  secondary,  yet  if  our 
shows  are  to  serve  the  purposes  they  should,  more  em- 
phasis will  have  to  be  placed  on  whether  or  not  an 
animal  has  been  profitably  produced  by  its  owner,  and  we 
shall  depend  less  on  the  old  show  standards  that  have 
had  their  origins  in  conditions  different  from  what  exist 
today  in  the  southern  states. 

The  proper  finish. — The  proper  degree  to  which  to  fit 
show  animals  will  depend  on  several  factors.  Different 
judges  have  different  standards,  there  are  different 
standards  for  the  different  classes,  the  amount  of  natural 
fleshing  is  a  factor,  the  degree  of  hardness  of  the  fat  is 
another  factor,  and  the  competition  that  one  has  to  meet 
is  still  another.  Showmen  make  a  practice  of  obtaining 
information  in  advance,  where  possible,  of  the  fitness  and 
merits  of  the  animals  against  which  they  will  have  to 
show.  This  is  not  a  bad  practice.  The  proper  condition 
to  which  to  finish  is  difficult  to  describe.  If  a  market  hog, 
the  animal  must  be  finished,  yet  he  must  not  be  overly 
fat  and  soft.  Breeding  animals  do  not  require  the  condi- 
tion that  is  demanded  of  the  fat  classes.  Under  no  cir- 
cumstances must  the  animals  be  too  soft,  and  never  so  fat 


116  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

as  to  be  wrinkled.  What  is  desired  is  a  smooth  finish  in 
which  there  is  a  firmness,  indicative  of  plenty  of  lean 
meat.  To  obtain  the  desired  firmness  such  feeds  as  corn 
and  cottonseed  meal  can  be  fed  to  harden  the  fat.  In  the 
breeding  classes  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  have  the  animals 
too  fat.  The  exact  condition  and  fleshing  qualities  re- 
quired can  only  be  learned  by  experience. 

Different  treatment  for  different  ages. — It  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  pigs  of  different  ages  will  require 
different  feed  and  attention  to  be  properly  fitted.  Pigs 
will  require  greater  attention  and  care  than  the  older 
animals.  The  feeds  of  the  pigs  should  be  more  of  a 
nitrogenous  nature,  and  especially  should  it  have  bulk. 
Pigs  can  be  expected  to  make  better  use  of  certain 
leguminous  pastures  than  the  older  hogs.  They  should 
be  fed  only  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  corn  and 
such  carbonaceous  feeds,  and  greater  quantities  of  skim 
milk,  shorts,  and  nitrogenous  feeds,  especially  legumes. 
More  corn  and  other  fattening  feeds  can  be  fed  to  older 
hogs.  They  are  less  apt  to  get  out  of  condition  than  the 
pigs.  The  pigs  will  usually  take  sufficient  exercise  of 
their  own  accord,  but  older  animals  have  to  be  encour- 
aged to  take  exercise.  All  of  these  natural  tendencies 
exhibited  by  swine  of  different  ages  should  be  studied  and 
utilized  in  show  fitting. 

Securing  width. — In  the  fitting  of  swine  for  competition 
in  the  fat  or  market  classes  some  difficulty  is  generally 
experienced  in  securing  the  width  that  is  desired  to  give 
the  compact  and  blocky  conformation.  No  two  things 
make  more  for  securing  the  desired  width  than  breeding 
of  the  proper  sort  and  ample  food  supply  from  birth. 


SHOWING    SWINE  117 

The  use  of  bulky  feeds  during  the  early  life  of  the  pig  is 
especially  desirable,  since  it  tends  to  produce  and  stimu- 
late growth  and  general  development  without  excess 
fattening.  Bulky  feeds  enlarge  the  digestive  organs  and 
promote  digestive  activities  in  general.  A  full  stomach 
and  intestines  in  the  show  ring  does  a  great  deal  toward 
giving  the  blocky  appearance  demanded. 

Securing  proper  hair  condition. — In  order  to  show  to 
the  best  advantage,  swine  intended  for  show  purposes 
must  have  a  smooth,  lustrous  coat  of  hair  or  bristles.  In 
order  to  have  a  good  hair  coat  the  animal  must  be  in  the 
best  of  health,  for  when  an  animal  gets  off  feed  or  in  poor 
physical  condition  one  of  the  first  places  that  it  shows  up 
is  in  the  hair  coat  and  skin.  Show  fitters  resort  to  several 
means  to  secure  the  condition  of  hair  and  skin  required. 
On  black  hogs  lamp  black  and  oils  are  used  to  some 
extent.  Rubbing  and  washing  tend  to  give  the  coat  a 
luster,  and  the  use  of  oil  dressings  of  several  sorts  is  re- 
sorted to.  Frequent  washing  with  soap  and  water  will 
keep  the  hogs  cool  and  comfortable  and  tends  to  promote 
hair  growth  and  condition.  To  obtain  the  proper  condi- 
tion of  the  hair  and  skin  is  no  small  matter,  yet  if  one  is 
to  show  and  win  in  strong  competition,  we  are  compelled 
to  resort  to  such  impractical  methods  in  self-defense. 

General  care  previous  to  showing. — After  the  proper 
condition  and  weight  has  been  secured  to  fit  the  hogs  for 
the  ring,  care  must  be  continually  exercised  to  see  that 
they  maintain  themselves,  or  even  improve,  until  they 
come  under  the  eyes  of  the  judge.  One  of  the  main  things 
to  watch  is  to  see  that  they  take  ample  exercise.  They 
should  be  encouraged  to  take  this  in  the  cool  of  the  day. 


118  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

There  are  several  ways  in  which  they  can  be  induced  to 
take  exercise,  but  in  doing  it  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
unduly  disturb  and  excite  them.  In  addition  to  the  exer- 
cise, the  feet  must  be  properly  looked  after.  They  may 


Personal   attention  is  essential  in   show  fitting.     Courtesy 
S.  H.  Pedrick  of  Georgia. 

need  trimming.  They  should  be  trimmed  if  necessary, 
and  sometimes  they  are  sandpapered  and  polished  with 
emery  dust  and  oil.  The  hair  coat  and  skin  must  not  be 
permitted  to  become  rough.  Above  all,  the  individuals 
should  be  trained  so  that  they  will  not  be  wild  and  excit- 
able, but  so  that  they  can  be  easily  handled.  Many 
animals  of  merit  have  failed  in  the  show  ring  because  they 
were  not  sufficiently  docile  to  be  judged  properly.  Fre- 
quent handling  and  rubbing  will  make  them  tame  and  fit 


SHOWING    SWINE  119 

them  so  that  they  can  be  shown  to  the  best  advantage 
when  they  enter  the  ring. 

Equipment  for  showing. — After  the  animals  have  been 
fitted  and  the  time  arrives  to  take  them  to  the  place  of 
showing,  there  is  a  certain  amount  of  equipment  required 
in  order  to  carry  out  the  program.  First,  one  needs  feeds 
for  the  hogs,  unless  these  are  supplied  by  the  show  asso- 
ciation. If  taken,  the  feeds  are  best  taken  already  mixed 
in  sacks.  In  addition,  some  buckets  for  watering  and 
slopping  and  some  feed  troughs  will  be  required.  In 
addition  to  some  crates,  some  small  hurdles  will  be  found 
useful  in  handling  the  hogs.  Other  accessories,  such  as 
bedding,  brushes,  oil,  possibly  lamp  black  or  other  pig- 
ments, hammer,  nails,  lantern,  kerosene  can,  medicines, 
etc.,  will  be  required.  In  addition  to  these  items,  it  is 
generally  customary  for  the  herdsman  that  attends  the 
hogs  to  sleep  in  their  vicinity,  which  calls  for  a  cot  and 
some  bedding.  A  large  trunk  or  two  is  usually  provided, 
in  which  to  keep  the  small  items  that  are  necessary.  All 
of  these  things  should  be  provided  for.  If  one  expects  to 
attend  the  shows  and  show,  it  does  not  pay  to  go  half 
prepared,  and  it  takes  preparation  in  other  than  properly 
finished  hogs  to  show  and  win  against  the  hot  competi- 
tion one  finds  at  the  better  shows. 

Transportation. — After  the  hogs  are  finished  and  all  of 
the  herdsman's  outfit  is  prepared,  the  question  of  trans- 
portation is  to  be  solved.  It  is  generally  necessary  to 
make  use  of  the  railroads,  for  but  few  breeders  live  close 
enough  to  the  shows  to  haul  by  wagon  or  truck.  As  to 
whether  the  hogs  will  be  driven  or  hauled  to  the  car  will 
depend  on  local  conditions.  In  some  instances,  where 


120  SOUTHERN     PORK    PRODUCTION 

the  switch  is  on  the  farm,  or  close  to  it,  it  may  not  be 
necessary  to  haul.  Otherwise,  if  the  distance  is  too 
great,  the  hogs  will  have  to  be  hauled  to  the  car.  The 
ordinary  box  car  is  the  most  frequently  used  type  of  car 
in  transporting  the  show  herd.  Other  types  are  some- 
times made  use  of,  however.  Usually  pens  have  to  be 
constructed  in  the  car.  These  will  have  to  be  bedded. 
Arrangements  must  be  made  for  feeding  and  watering 
en  route.  The  attendant  and  his  feeds  and  outfit  are 
usually  placed  on  a  platform  over  the  pens,  especially  if 
the  car  is  crowded.  If  only  a  part  of  the  car  is  occupied 
with  the  hogs,  the  other  part  may  be  utilized  by  the 
herdsman  and  to  store  feed,  bedding  and  other  equip- 
ment. Upon  arrival  at  the  show  yards  the  hogs  should 
be  removed  to  the  assigned  pens  as  soon  as  possible. 
Preparations  should  then  be  made  at  once  to  prepare  the 
animals  for  the  show  ring. 

Proper  showing. — Many  animals  of  superior  merit  have 
lost  in  the  show  ring  because  of  improper  showing.  The 
competition  is  such  in  our  better  shows  today  that  every 
advantage  counts  for  something.  In  many  cases  proper 
showing  has  won  the  blue  ribbon,  even  though  a  better 
animal  was  competing.  The  herdsman  or  showman  must 
know  and  appreciate  the  particular  merits  of  his  entry, 
and  exhibit  them  to  the  judge  to  the  best  advantage 
possible.  The  herdsman  should  study  the  judge  and  learn 
his  strong  and  weak  points  and  play  to  them.  In  the 
present  day  of  large  entries  and  keen  competition,  show- 
ing is  largely  a  game,  and  while,  individual  merit  counts, 
proper  showing  also  frequently  lands  the  blue  or  purple 
ribbon. 


CHAPTER  VI 
FEEDING  SWINE 

The  South  can  grow  pork. — The  South  can  never  com- 
pete with  the  Corn  Belt  sections  of  the  North  and  West 
in  the  fattening  of  pork  on  corn.  By  the  extensive  use  of 
grazing  crops  we  can  grow  pork  of  a  desirable  quality, 
however,  at  figures  which  cannot  be  equaled  under  Corn 
Belt  conditions.  We  should  aim  to  make  our  hogs  only 
so  fat  as  to  make  the  carcass  juicy,  palatable  and  tender. 
Any  fat  above  this  is  produced  at  a  loss,  for  so  far  as  we 
know  eight  or  ten  times  the  weight  of  food  required  to 
produce  a  pound  of  lean  is  required  in  the  production  of 
a  pound  of  fat.  If  we  must  have  an  extra  quantity  of  lard 
or  fat,  we  can  best  afford  to  import  it  from  the  Corn  Belt, 
or,  better  still,  make  a  more  extensive  use  of  our  own 
vegetable  fat,  cottonseed  oil. 

The  size  of  native  swine. — The  smallness  of  our  native 
unimproved  swine,  especially  of  those  farther  South,  is 
due  to  the  animals  not  having  had  a  constant  and  suffi- 
cient amount  of  nutritious  food.  They  are  not  kept  in  a 
healthy  and  growing  condition  from  the  time  they  are 
weaned  until  ready  for  slaughter.  Inbreeding  and  breed- 
ing at  too  young  an  age  may  have  reduced  the  size  more, 
but  for  the  most  part  the  inadequate  food  supply  during 
winter  and  early  spring  has  been  the  chief  contributing 
factor.  When  ample  food  is  supplied  a  much  larger 
animal  will  be  produced  from  this  native  stock,  and  the 
animal  will  be  ready  for  slaughter  at  a  much  earlier  age 
than  when  raised  in  the  usual  manner. 

121 


122  SOUTHERN     PORK    PRODUCTION 

Our  carbohydrate  supply. — For  many  years  our  investi- 
gators in  feeding  and  nutrition  have  realized  that  the 
deficiency  of  feeding  nutrients  in  the  South  was  not  pro- 
tein, but  was  in  carbohydrates.  This  is  the  reverse  of 
the  condition  in  the  Corn  Belt,  where  corn  supplies  an 
abundance  of  carbohydrates  and  where  proteins  are 
naturally  scarce.  Fortunately,  an  adequate  protein 
supply  is  more  important  than  an  adequate  carbohydrate 
supply,  so  that  while  we  have  a  problem,  it  cannot  be 
considered  with  the  same  gravity  as  the  protein  supply  of 
the  Corn  Belt.  We  must  not  feed  too  narrow  a  ration 
and  must  feed  some  carbohydrates.  Corn  will  supply 
some.  Sweet  potatoes,  chufas,  molasses,  saccharine  and 
non-saccharine  sorghums  will  supply  some,  and,  in  addi- 
tion, legumes  and  all  other  feeds  contain  appreciable 
quantities  of  carbohydrates. 

Too  much  corn  not  profitable. — In  those  sections  of  the 
South  where  corn  can  be  grown  to  advantage,  a  mistake 
has  been  often  made  of  feeding  a  ration  to  hogs  restricted 
almost  entirely  to  corn.  Corn  has  always  been  considered 
a  valuable  feed  for  swine,  and  so  it  is,  but  we  too  often 
fail  to  realize  that  to  obtain  the  maximum  value  from  it, 
it  must  be  properly  supplemented.  tAs  many  as  a  dozen 
experiments  have  been  tried  at  the  several  experiment 
stations  in  testing  the  value  of  corn  alone  and  with  corn 
supplemented.  All  have  agreed  that  a  ration  of  corn 
alone  was  not  profitable  and  that  production  was  obtained 
at  a  greatly  reduced  figure  by  properly  supplementing  the 
corn  with  a  food  rich  in  nitrogen  and  mineral  matter.  In 
several  instances,  notably  at  the  Kansas  Station,  the  pigs 
died  on  rations  of  corn  alone.  The  supplements  that  were 
found  most  valuable  were  the  legumes,  and  by  their  use, 


FEEDING    SWINE 


123 


both  of  the  seed  and  green  pastures,  a  reduction  of  from 
ten  to  fifty  per  cent  and  more  was  obtained  in  the  cost  per 
100  pounds  of  gain. 

The  use  of  grazing  crops. — Pork  production  can  be  put 
on  an  absolutely  permanent  basis  in  the  South  by  every 
farmer  who  will  take  up  seriously  the  matter  of  growing 
forage  crops  so  as  to  supply  an  abundance  of  roughage 
for  his  swine  the  year  through.  Every  successful  hog 
man  knows  that  the  greatest  profits  in  pork  production 
have  come  from  the  liberal  and  judicious  use  of  forage 


Most  grazing  crops  should  be  supplemented.     Courtesy  D.  T. 
Hardin  of  Tennessee. 

crops.  By  the  use  of  forage  crops  swine  can  be  grown 
and  maintained  with  but  very  little  concentrates.  For 
the  proper  finishing  of  pork  for  the  market  some  concen- 


124  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

trates  will  have  to  be  used,  but  it  is  also  possible  to  grow 
these  at  low  cost,  and  they  can,  for  the  most  part,  be 
harvested  by  the  hogs  themselves.  We  can  have  forage 
crops  every  day  in  the  year  for  our  hogs  if  we  plan  far 
enough  ahead. 

Rotations. — After  one  has  decided  upon  the  crops  that 
can  be  grown  under  his  conditions,  the  more  important 
problem  of  arranging  for  a  rotation  or  succession  enters 
in.  There  are  no  rotations  that  are  applicable  all  over 
the  South,  a  specific  one  being  required  for  each  section 
and  farm.  In  order  to  show  how  they  are  planned,  some 
typical  ones  are  presented.  Of  course,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  have  several  fields  in  order  to  properly  graze  swine. 
As  a  general  proposition,  the  more  fields  and  the  greater 
variety  of  crops  grown  the  better.  It  is  possible  to  pro- 
vide grazing  pretty  well  through  the  year  and  feed  hogs 
in  a  limited  way  with  three  fields  on  a  three-year  rotation. 
Such  a  rotation  might  be  planned  about  as  follows : 
GRAZING  FROM  JAN.  1  TO  JAN.  1 

Order  Approximate  order 

planted  grazed  (months) 

Field  1 — Winter  grains  plus  winter  legume Mar.,  June 

Summer  legume  plus  corn Sept.,  Oct. 

Field  2 — Winter  grains  plus  winter  legume May,  July 

Sweet  potatoes  plus  peanuts Nov.,  Dec. 

Field  3 — Rape  plus  oats Jan.,  Feb.,  Apr.,  May 

Early  corn  plus  legume Aug. 

A  four-field  rotation  could  be  made  from  the  above  by 
the  addition  of  a  field  of  alfalfa.  A  permanent  grass 
pasture,  such  as  Bermuda  or  blue  grass,  would  also  work 
in  well  with  the  above  grazing  plan,  but  it  should  not  be 
rotated.  An  ideal  five-field  system  would  include  the 
above  three-field  plan,  with  one  field  additional  for  al- 


FEEDING    SWINE  125 

falfa  and  one  additional  permanent  pasture,  which  could 
be  grazed  off  as  needed. 

In  order  to  show  about  how  the  succession  would  run 
on  a  four-field  rotation,  the  following  is  presented : 

A  FOUR-FIELD  ROTATION  TO  SUPPLY  GRAZING  FROM  JULY  1  TO  JULY  1 

Order  Approximate 

planted  grazing  dates 

Field  1 — Early  corn  plus  New  Era  peas July 

Rape  plus  oats Nov.,  Apr. 

Field  2 — Sweet  potatoes  and  peanuts Sept.,  Oct. 

Winter  grain  plus  winter  legumes Dec.,  May 

Field  3 — Corn  plus  soy  beans  or  cowpeas . Aug. 

Winter  grain  plus  winter  legumes Jan.,  June 

Field  4 — Chufas  and  bur  clover Feb.,  Mar. 

As  pointed  out  in  the  case  of  the  three-year  rotation, 
this  could  be  made  a  five  or  six-field  plan  by  the  addition 
of  either  alfalfa  or  a  permanent  grass  pasture,  or  both. 

In  order  to  facilitate  the  planning  of  the  right  rotations 
and  to  assist  in  the  selection  of  the  most  suitable  crops, 
the  following  table  is  offered,  which  shows  the  most 
suitable  crops  for  grazing  for  each  month  of  the  year 
under  average  southern  conditions.  The  average  planting 
date  is  also  given.  The  number  of  hogs  that  an  acre  of 
the  crops  will  carry  is  not  given,  for  the  reason  that  they 
will  vary  within  such  wide  limits,  varying  in  the  length  of 
time  the  grazing  is  to  take  place,  upon  the  stage  of 
growth,  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  the  season,  climate,  and 
.many  other  factors. 

To  supply      Suitable  crops  Planting  date 

grazing  in 

January        Rape   Sept  1 

Rye  and  vetch Sept.  1 

Bur  clover July 

Oats    Sept. 

Chufas  - May 


126 


SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 


To  supply      Suitable  crops  Planting  date 

grazing  in 

February       Rape  Sept. 

Rye  and  vetch Sept. 

Oats    Sept. 

Bur  clover  Sept. 

Crimson  clover Sept.  15 

Chufas May 

March  Rape  Sept. 

Rye  and  vetch Sept. 

Bur  clover Sept. 

Oats Oct.  1 

Alfalfa A  previous  year 

Chufas May 

Corn,  grain 

April  Rape   Oct.  1 

Rye  and  vetch Sept. 

Oats Oct.  1 

Crimson  clover Sept.  30 

Alfalfa A  previous  year 

Corn,  grain 

May  Alfalfa A  previous  year 

Oats    Oct.  1 

Crimson  clover Oct.  1 

Rye  and  vetch Sept.  15 

Rape  Feb.  1 

Corn,  grain 

June  Alfalfa A  previous  year 

Oats Mar.  1 

Rape  Feb.  1 

New  Era  peas Apr.  15 

Bermuda  Permanent 

July  Alfalfa A  previous  year 

New  Era  peas Apr.  25 

Early  corn Apr.  1 

Bermuda  Permanent 

Early  soy  beans May  1 

August          Cowpeas May  20 

Soy  beans May  10 

Alfalfa. . A  previous  year 

Field  corn Apr.  1 

Bermuda  Permanent 

September    Cowpeas June  1 

Soy  beans  June  1 

Corn   May  20 

Bermuda  Permanent 

Sweet  potatoes June  1 

Peanuts   — June  1-10 


FEEDING    SWINE  127 

To  supply      Suitable  crops  Planting  date 

grazing  in 

October         Corn    June  1-15 

Sweet  potatoes June  1-15 

Cowpeas  July  1 

Bermuda Permanent 

Peanuts June  1-10 

November     Sweet  potatoes June  1-10 

Rye Sept.  1-10 

Rape    Sept.1-10 

Peanuts June  1-15 

December     Rape  Sept.  1 

Rye  and  vetch Sept.  1 

Chufas May  1 

Oats Sept.  1 

Perennial  grazing  crops. — By  perennial  grazing  crops 
we  refer  to  those  crops  that  we  plant  once  and  then  they 
reseed  themselves.  There  are  a  number  of  true  peren- 
nials that  have  value  as  grazing  crops.  Among  these 
alfalfa  is  by  far  the  most  important.  In  addition  to  this 
there  are  several  grasses  that  are  perennial.  Also,  there 
are  several  plants  that  are  not  perennial,  but  they  re- 
semble perennial  plants  in  that  they  reseed  themselves. 
Among  such  plants  is  bur  clover.  The  chief  value  in 
perennials  is  that  they  require  less  work  in  reseeding  each 
year.  A  permanent  pasture,  such  as  Bermuda,  is  not 
difficult  to  obtain,  and  it  is  a  sure  crop.  Usually  peren- 
nials make  a  surer  crop  than  the  annuals,  but  will  not 
yield  quite  so  heavily. 

Annual  grazing  crops. — Most  of  the  swine-grazing 
crops  in  use  are  annuals.  They  have  their  chief  value  in 
that  two  crops  can  be  planted  and  harvested  in  the  same 
field  in  a  season.  Most  hog-grazing  crops  are  either 
planted  in  the  early  spring  or  early  fall.  It  is  almost 
impossible  to  arrange  a  system  of  crop  rotation  suitable 
for  hog  grazing  without  the  annuals,  Among  them  are 


128  SOUTHERN     PORK    PRODUCTION 

• 

such  valuable  crops  as  corn,  sweet  potatoes,  peanuts, 
chufas,  the  small  grains,  and  a  number  of  clovers  and 
grasses,  without  which  we  could  not  profitably  graze 
swine. 

Leguminous  forage  crops. — One  of  the  greatest  oppor- 
tunities offered  by  a  system  of  swine  production  is  that 
means  are  provided  whereby  the  fertility  of  the  soil  can 
be  not  only  maintained,  but  very  rapidly  added  to.  This 
would  result  from  the  use  of  leguminous  forage  crops, 
which  are  both  valuable  as  a  feed  and  for  the  fixing  of 
nitrogen  in  the  soil.  The  South  is  extremely  fortunate 
in  that  practically  all  legumes  do  well.  Cowpeas,  soy 
beans,  vetches,  velvet  beans,  peanuts,  clovers  and  alfalfa 
all  thrive  in  most  places.  Legumes,  as  a  rule,  not  only 
possess  greater  feed  value  than  non-legumes,  but  the 
residual  effect  on  the  soil  is  an  added  advantage  which 
our  farmers  have  failed  to  take  proper  advantage  of  as  yet. 

Available  feeds. — Of  necessity,  forage  crops  must  play 
a  most  important  role  in  any  extensive  system  of  swine 
feeding  that  may  be  developed  in  the  southern  states. 
We  can  secure  and  properly  manage  swine  with  which 
to  grow  pork,  but  the  greatest  problem  is  and  always 
will  be  that  of  adequate  food  supply.  What  the  hog 
grower  wants  to  know  is,  How  can  he  economically  pro- 
vide the  feed  to  grow  and  fatten  swine  and  be  assured  of 
profits  from  his  undertaking?  It  can  be  done  and  is 
being  done  in  many  places.  It  is  never  done  without 
considerable  effort  and  planning.  A  careful  study  of  the 
characteristics  of  the  different  feeds  and  their  values  will 
assist  the  swine  grower  in  providing  the  proper  feeds  for 
his  swine. 


FEEDING    SWINE  129 

Space  is  given  only  to  the  more  important  swine  feeds, 
and  while  there  are  many  others,  a  few  of  which  are 
enumerated,  it  will  generally  be  found  advisable  for  the 
feeder  to  restrict  himself  to  those  feeds  described  more  in 
detail,  for  their  value  has  been  proven.  In  the  making 
of  these  discussions  and  calculations,  authoritative  works 
have  been  freely  consulted,  and  in  most  instances  credit 
is  given.  In  other  instances,  where  several  authors  have 
concurred  on  a  special  point,  the  references  have  been 
omitted  for  obvious  reasons. 

Corn. — A  description  of  the  grain  or  seed  of  this 
standard  American  cereal  is  unnecessary.  It  is  one  of 
the  most  valuable  carbohydrate  feeds  we  have,  contain- 
ing about  68  pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrates  and  5 
pounds  of  digestible  fat  per  hundred  pounds  of  grain. 
In  the  same  amount  there  are  only  about  7  pounds  of 
digestible  protein,  which  shows  that  it  is  deficient  in 
protein.  It  has  a  nutritive  ratio  of  approximately  1 : 11.3. 
The  weakness  of  corn  thus  lies  in  its  small  amount  of 
protein.  Also,  research  work  has  shown  that  the  pro- 
tein that  is  supplied  by  corn  is  not  of  the  best  quality.  In 
addition,  corn  is  deficient  in  mineral  matter.  These  two 
deficiencies  show  the  great  necessity  for  properly  supple- 
menting a  corn  ration.  Its  composition  suggests  the 
value  of  corn  in  supplementing  pastures  rich  in  protein, 
such  as  peanut,  rape,  broom  or  rescue  grass,  alfalfa, 
vetch,  velvet  bean  and  bur  clover.  Practically  every 
system  of  grazing  crops  for  swine  should  contain  corn. 
It  is  generally  planted  from  March  to  May,  or  as  soon  as 
all  dangers  of  frost  are  over.  Yields  vary  greatly,  al- 
though the  average  is  low  in  the  South.  It  is  a  feed  that 
is  .available  almost  over  the  entire  South  and  at  all 


130  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

seasons   of  the  year,   which  makes  it  a  most  valuable 
source  of  food  supply. 

Sweet  potato  pasture. — This  is  a  summer-growing 
tuberous  root  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  South  so 
far  as  hog  feeding  is  concerned.  It  is  adapted  to  practi- 
cally every  section,  but  generally  does  best  on  light, 
sandy  soils,  where  yields  of  200  bushels  to  the  acre  are 
often  obtained.  It  is  a  highly  carbonaceous  feed,  having 
a  nutritive  ratio  of  about  1 : 25,  containing  per  100  pounds 
of  potatoes  about  25  pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrate, 
.3  pounds  of  digestible  fats  and  1  pound  of  digestible  pro- 
tein. In  feeding  value  it  is  equal  to  one-third  the 
quantity  of  corn,  which  is  remarkably  high,  considering 
its  succulence.  It  is  generally  planted  in  May  or  June, 
and  where  intended  for  hog  feed  is  never  harvested  ex- 
cept by  the  hogs.  The  grazing-off  season  generally  runs 
from  August  to  after  frost  in  October.  Owing  to  its 
highly  carbonaceous  character,  it  is  admirably  adapted 
for  feeding  in  connection  with  legumes  with  ripe  seeds, 
such  as  mature  peanuts,  velvet  beans,  soy  beans,  cow- 
peas,  etc.  This  is  a  feed  of  proven  worth  that  should  be 
in  every  system  of  swine  grazing  that  may  be  adopted, 
unless  for  certain  reasons  it  will  not  grow  well. 

Peanut  pasture. — This  is  a  summer  legume  of  proven 
worth,  as  indicated  by  the  fact  that  already  thousands 
upon  thousands  of  hogs  are  annually  fed  upon  this 
standard  southern  swine  feed.  There  are  two  types  that 
are  commonly  grown,  the  Spanish  and  common.  The 
Spanish  is  smaller,  but  where  it  has  been  tried  it  has 
generally  proven  rmore  valuable.  Yields  of  two  or  three 
tons  per  acre  have  been  secured,  which  indicates  how 


FEEDING   SWINE  131 

cheaply  the  feed  is  produced.  They  do  best  on  light, 
sandy  soils.  They  go  by  the  name  of  "pindars"  in  south 
Georgia  and  Florida,  and  in  other  sections  they  are  re- 
ferred to  as  goobers.  While  the  usual  practice  is  not  to 
put  the  hogs  into  the  fields  until  the  nuts  are  mature,  it 
is  sometimes  done.  The  stage  at  which  they  are  pas- 
tured has  much  to  do  with  their  feeding  value.  One  hun- 
dred pounds  of  the  material  eaten  by  the  hogs  will  con- 
tain from  10  to  16  pounds  of  digestible  protein,  from  15 
to  40  pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrates  and  from  8  to  30 
pounds  of  digestible  fat,  which  indicates  that  as  a  food  it 
is  fairly  well  balanced,  having  a  nutritive  ratio  of  about 
1 :  5.5.  Being  slightly  of  a  nitrogenous  nature,  it  should 
be  balanced  up  with  such  feeds  as  sweet  potatoes,  corn, 
sacharrine  and  non-sacharrine  sorghums.  Peanuts  tend 
to  produce  soft  pork,  and  this  condition  is  overcome  by 
the  feeding  of  a  little  corn,  and  especially  at  the  end  of 
the  feeding  of  market  hogs,  for  the  corn  hardens  the  fat 
sufficiently  that  it  will  not  be  discriminated  against.  It 
is  generally  planted  in  June  and  grazed  off  from  August 
to  January.  The  great  pork-producing  value  of  this  crop 
is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  in  one  recorded  instance  a 
yield  of  over  1,000  pounds  of  pork  was  obtained  from  one 
acre. 

Bermuda  pasture. — This  is  by  far  the  most  important 
native  grass  in  the  South  so  far  as  swine  production  is 
concerned.  It  is  a  perfect  grazing  grass  in  that  it  seems 
to  be  uninjured  by  the  most  severe  grazing  and  tramping. 
It  can  stand  drouth  when  necessary.  Swine  make  good 
use  of  it,  but  it  must  be  properly  supplemented.  It  has 
succulent  underground  roots  of  which  swine  are  very 
fond.  In  rooting  for  these  they  do  no  other  damage  than 


132  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

to  make  the  pasture  rough.  This  is  a  highly  carbo- 
naceous feed,  having  only  about  one  and  a  half  pounds  of 
digestible  protein  per  100  pounds  of  grass.  The  carbo- 
hydrates amount  to  about  16  pounds  and  the  fat  less  than 
a  half  pound  per  100  pounds.  The  nutritive  ratio  is  1 : 11 
or  12,  which  suggests  supplements  of  mature  legume 
grazing  crops,  such  as  peanuts,  velvet  beans,  soy  beans 
or  soy  bean  pasture,  and  when  concentrates  are  used, 
linseed  or  cottonseed  meal,  meat  meal,  or  wheat  by- 
products made  into  a  slop  are  valuable. 

This  is  a  permanent  grass,  and  it  is  generally  not 
difficult  to  obtain  a  stand.  It  is  propagated  by  means  of 
roots,  which  will  readily  take  hold  if  given  half  a  chance. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  persistent  grasses  and  is  difficult 
to  eradicate  when  it  once  gets  a  hold.  In  many  parts  of 
the  South  this  grass  grows  in  connection  with  lespedeza, 
which  makes  an  excellent  maintenance  pasture  for  hogs 
of  all  kinds,  available  from  one  month  after  the  last  frost 
in  spring  to  heavy  frost  in  the  fall. 

Cowpeas  pasture. — The  great  value  of  this  legume  to 
southern  agriculture  is  attested  by  the  fact  that  it  has 
been  grown  here  for  over  150  years.  It  originally  came 
from  India  or  China.  It  is  an  annual  summer  legume. 
There  are  many  varieties,  and  they  vary  from  an  upright 
plant  to  plants  with  runners  12  to  16  feet  in  length.  The 
seeds  are  of  all  colors  and  mixed,  and  some  varieties  are 
early  and  some  late.  It  is  adapted  to  practically  all  parts 
of  the  South,  and  it  is  unequaled  as  a  soil  renovator  and 
legume  forage  crop  for  swine.  The  pigs  eat  the  pods  and 
tender  leaves  and  shoots.  It  is  generally  not  grazed  until 
the  first  peas  begin  to  mature,  the  peas  not  all  maturing 
at  the  same  time,  but  coming  on  along  for  a  month  or 


FEEDING    SWINE 


133 


more.  The  time  at  which  the  pigs  are  turned  on  has  a 
great  deal  to  do  with  the  feeding  value  of  the  crop.  One 
hundred  pounds  of  the  feed  consumed  by  the  pigs  is  of 
greater  feeding  value  as  the  crop  matures,  the  consump- 


Feed  wastes  can  be  prevented  by  properly  constructed  troughs. 
Courtesy  W.  D.  Troutman  of  North  Carolina. 

tion  of  this  amount  of  feed  containing  all  the  way  from 
3  to  15  pounds  of  digestible  protein,  from  8  to  50  pounds 
of  digestible  carbohydrate  and  from  .4  to  1  pound  of 
digestible  fat.  It  has  an  average  nutritive  ratio  of  about 
1 :  3,  which  suggests  its  use  in  connection  with  such  feeds 
as  corn,  sweet  potatoes,  sacharrine  and  non-sacharrine 
sorghums,  Bermuda  grass  and  by-products  of  the  rice 
milling  industry. 

It  is  generally  planted  in  April  as  soon  as  all  danger 
of  frost  is  past,  and  it  is  available  from  August  to 
November.  A  common  practice  in  most  sections  is  to 
grow  a  crop  of  cowpeas  either  in  corn  or  else  after  a 


134  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

small  grain  crop,  such  as  oats,  in  which  case  it  is  gener- 
ally September  before  it  is  'available  for  pasture.  It  is 
not  so  valuable  as  soy  beans  for  the  production  of  seed 
for  several  reasons,  not  the  least  among  which  is  the 
necessity  for  hand  picking  resulting  from  the  uneven 
ripening,  which  must  be  classed  as  an  advantage  from  the 
standpoint  of  a  swine-grazing  crop. 

Oats  pasture. — This  is  a  small  winter  grain  and  is  the 
most  extensively  grown  of  all  small  grains  in  the  South. 
It  is  planted  in  the  fall  in  most  southern  states,  but  in  the 
northern  states  it  must  be  planted  in  the  spring.  It  is 
most  commonly  raised  for  seed,  but  its  value  as  a  swine- 
grazing  crop  is  rapidly  becoming  appreciated,  especially 
when  it  is  combined  with  vetch.  It  is  one  of  the  cereals 
that  is  grazed  to  quite  an  extent  when  young.  After 
grazing  during  nearly  all  of  the  latter  part  of  the  winter, 
the  hogs  are  generally  removed  about  March  1st  or  a 
little  later  to  give  it  a  chance  to  make  grain,  after  which 
it  may  be  grazed  off  once  or  twice  if  properly  handled. 
The  pasturing  of  oats  at  different  seasons  makes  its 
feeding  value  quite  variable,  100  pounds  of  consumed 
feed  containing  from  2.5  to  7.5  pounds  of  digestible 
protein,  from  12  to  48  pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrate, 
from  .8  to  3.2  pounds  of  digestible  fat.  It  is  a  fairly  well- 
balanced  ration,  having  a  nutritive  ratio  of  approximately 
1 : 6,  but  in  its  immature  state  a  concentrate  such  as 
middlings  or  soy  beans  should  be  added.  It  has  also  been 
found  excellent  when  fed  in  rations  containing  vetch, 
rape  and  alfalfa  pastures,  although  in  such  instances 
some  concentrates  should  be  fed.  It  is  generally  avail- 
able from  December  to  June,  but  the  early  pasturing 
does  not  amount  to  so  much  in  the  northern  part  of  the 


FEEDING    SWINE  135 

South  as  nearer  the  Gulf.  A  common  practice  is  to  follow 
the  crop  of  oats  with  cowpeas.  September  is  the  usual 
month  of  sowing. 

Rape  pasture. — This  plant  in  many  respects  resembles 
the  collard.  In  shape  and  color  of  leaf  it  resembles  the 
rutabaga  or  Swedish  turnip.  The  leaves  grow  very  rank 
and  succulent,  and  being  sweet  and  tender  they  are 
quite  palatable.  It  is  primarily  a  winter  grower  and  is 
of  little  value  in  summer.  There  are  several  varieties, 
but  the  Dwarf  Essex  is  the  best  for  swine-grazing  pur- 
poses. The  seed  are  usually  broadcasted  in  September 
at  the  rate  of  five  pounds  per  acre,  and  a  common  method 
is  to  grow  the  crop  in  connection  with  oats.  Its  value  in 
yield  of  pork  often  exceeds  $25  per  acre.  The  high  feed- 
ing value  of  rape  is  largely  due  to  its  protein  content  and 
to  its  succulence.  While  the  dry  rape  leaves  have  been 
reported  to  contain  over  20  per  cent  of  protein,  the  con- 
sumption of  100  pounds  of  rape  on  pasture  yields  only 
about  2  pounds  of  digestible  protein,  about  10  of  digest- 
ible carbohydrates  and  less  than  one  pound  of  digestible 
fat,  with  a  nutritive  ratio  about  1 : 5.2.  This  is  a  fairly 
well-balanced  feed  and  suggests  the  use  of  such  carbo- 
hydrate concentrates  as  rice  by-products,  corn,  or  chufas, 
and  the  use  of  oats  and  rye  pastures  in  conjunction 
with  it. 

Rape  yields  an  immense  quantity  of  forage,  and  the 
Iowa  Station  has  reported  the  production  of  over  1,400 
pounds  of  pork  from  an  acre.  Rape  should  never  be 
grazed  when  wet  or  frozen.  If  it  is  not  pastured  too 
closely  it  will  come  back  several  times  during  the  winter 
and  spring.  It  should  be  allowed  to  attain  a  height  of  ten 


136  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

or  twelve  inches  before  the  hogs  are  turned  in.     With 
this  plant  grazing  can  be  had  from  November  to  June. 

Chufa  pasture. — This  crop  gives  great  promise  for  the 
reason  that  the  food  is  available  for  pasture  at  a  season 
when  other  feeds  are  scarce  and  the  feed  is  of  very  high 
value.  It  is  a  summer  sedge  that  makes  its  growth  in 
summer,  but  provides  tubers  for  winter  grazing.  It  is 
admirably  adapted  to  sandy  soils  and  does  not  do  so  well 
on  heavier  soils,  which  in  a  way  limits  its  use.  Yields  of 
from  75  to  150  bushels  per  acre  have  been  reported.  It 
is  generally  planted  in  May,  12  to  15  inches  apart  in 
3-foot  rows.  The  tubers  are  generally  grazed  off  at  any 
time  from  October  to  April.  Henry  and  Morrison1  report 
that  as  much  as  600  pounds  of  pork  can  be  made  per 
acre  from  this  crop.  These  same  authors  state  that  100 
pounds  of  chufas  will  yield  .4  pounds  of  digestible  pro- 
tein, 10.2  pounds  digestible  carbohydrates  and  3.3  of 
digestible  fat,  and  will  have  a  nutritive  ratio  of  approxi- 
mately 1 : 44.  This  suggests  the  use  of  this  crop  in  con- 
nection with  such  nitrogenous  feeds  as  buttermilk  and 
skim  milk,  soy  beans,  bur  clover  and  alfalfa  pasture. 

Alfalfa  pasture. — In  the  South  this  is  both  a  perennial 
winter  and  summer  legume.  It  has  been  rather  widely 
grown  on  a  limited  scale  and  requires  no  detailed  descrip- 
tion. Twenty  to  30  pounds  of  seed  are  generally 
sown  to  the  acre  in  September  or  October.  As  a  pasture 
crop  it  is  available  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  but  to  a 
much  reduced  extent  in  winter.  Its  feeding  value  is  high 
tor  a  succulent  grazing  crop,  and  the  feeding  value  per 
100  pounds  will  often  run  3  pounds  of  digestible  protein, 


1  Feeds  and  Feeding,  p.  245. 


FEEDING   SWINE  137 

10  to  12  pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrates,  and  approxi- 
mately a  half  pound  of  digestible  fat.  Being  a  legume,  it 
is  of  a  nitrogenous  nature,  having  a  nutritive  ratio  of 
about  1 : 4,  which  suggests  its  use  with  such  feeds  as 
sweet  potatoes,  chufas,  sacharrine  and  non-sacharrine 
sorghums,  corn  and  rice  by-products. 

Soy  bean  pasture. — This  legume  is  generally  planted 
in  May  and  provides  pasture  from  July  to  November.  It 
ought  to  be  nearly  mature  before  pasturing.  It  is  highly 
digestible  and  is  rich  in  oil  and  protein,  containing  from  3 
to  25  per  cent  of  the  former  and  from  .5  to  10  per  cent  of 
the  latter.  The  digestible  carbohydrates  run  rather  low, 
ranking  from  10  to  20  per  cent,  depending  on  the  stage  of 
growth  and  on  the  feed  other  than  beans  consumed. 
With  a  nutritive  ratio  averaging  around  1 : 3,  it  naturally 
requires  with  it  carbonaceous  feeds,  such  as  sweet  pota- 
toes, corn,  rice  by-products,  and  sacharrine  and  non- 
sacharrine  sorghums  to  make  a  balanced  ration. 

Soy  beans  are  sometimes  grown  in  connection  with 
corn,  being  planted  between  the  rows,  the  rows  having 
been  left  rather  wide.  It  gives  great  promise  of  playing 
a  very  important  role  in  our  general  system  of  swine 
feeding,  as  it  is  already  doing  in  many  sections. 

Soy  beans. — The  seed  of  the  soy  bean  promises  to  be- 
come one  of  the  chief  sources  of  our  protein  concentrates. 
The  seed  are  heavy  in  oil,  and  this  may  cause  the 
development  of  a  considerable  industry,  which  will  leave 
the  cake  for  feeding  purposes.  Either  the  meal  is  valu- 
able, or  the  whole  bean  can  be  fed  to  advantage,  as  it  is 
very  digestible.  The  plant  can  be  grown  over  practically 
the  entire  South,  and  an  average  yield  per  acre  of  around 


138  SOUTHERN     PORK    PRODUCTION 

30  bushels  can  be  secured.  It  is  superior  to  cowpeas  not 
only  in  yield,  but  the  seeds  ripen  in  such  a  way  that  the 
crop  can  be  saved  without  hand  picking,  as  is  necessary 
in  the  case  of  cowpeas.  The  seeds  are  quite  digestible, 
and  it  is  not  necessary  to  grind  them.  Their  digestible 
protein  content  is  quite  high,  being  about  30  per  cent, 
while  the  digestible  carbohydrates  run  around  25  and  the 
digestible  fats  from  12  to  15  per  cent,  with  a  nutritive 
ratio  between  1 : 1.5  and  1 :  2.  Their  strong  nitrogenous 
nature  suggests  their  use  in  connection  with  such  carbo- 
naceous feeds  as  chufas,  sweet  potatoes,  sacharrine  and 
non-sacharrine  sorghums,  corn,  and  possibly  molasses. 

Bur  clover  pasture. — This  valuable  annual  winter 
legume  thrives  on  any  soil  where  Bermuda  does  well,  and 
is  largely  confined  to  that  area.  It  is  best  to  seed  it 
broadcast  in  July.  It  can  then  be  pastured  from  Febru- 
ary to  May.  Its  great  value,  too,  comes  in  the  fact  that 
it  can  be  grown  in  with  Bermuda,  as  their  growing  or 
active  dates  do  not  interfere,  and  by  the  use  of  Bermuda 
and  bur  clover  it  is  possible  to  have  a  valuable  permanent 
pasture  through  the  entire  year.  Even  in  cultivated 
ground  it  does  not  require  reseeding  when  properly 
handled.  Being  a  legume,  it  is  naturally  of  a  nitrogenous 
nature.  Henry  and  Morrison1  give  the  per  cent  of  digest- 
ible crude  protein  at  3.4,  that  of  digestible  carbohydrate 
at  8.2  and  that  of  digestible  fat  at  1.1,  and  with  a  nutri- 
tive ratio  of  1 : 3.1.  This  suggests  using  with  it  such 
carbohydrate  feeds  as  chufa  pasture  or  corn,  about  the 
only  highly  carbohydrate  concentrate  feeds  available  at 
this  season  of  the  year.  The  value  of  this  crop  is  three- 


1  Feeds  and  Feeding,  p.  664. 


FEEDING   SWINE  139 

fold — it  is  not  only  a  valuable  swine-grazing  crop,  but  on 
cultivated  ground  it  serves  as  a  winter  cover  crop,  pre- 
venting washing,  and  in  addition  adds  nitrogen  to  the 
soil. 

Vetch  pasture. — There  are  over  100  varieties  of  this 
valuable  winter  legume  in  America,  but  only  a  few  attain 
any  importance.  So  far  as  we  are  concerned,  we  are  in- 
terested only  in  the  hairy  or  sand  vetch  and  the  native 
Carolina  and  Louisiana  vetches.  These  annuals  have 
weak,  slender  stems,  and  for  that  reason  generally  do 
best  with  some  support  crop,  such  as  oats  or  rye.  They 
are  generally  seeded  in  August  or  September,  and  can  be 
grazed  from  December  to  May  1.  They  are  of  a 
nitrogenous  character,  having  a  nutritive  ratio  averaging 
around  1 :  3.5.  Being  grazed  at  all  stages  of  growth,  their 
feeding  value  is  naturally  variable,  and  the  digestible 
protein  will  run  from  around  3.5  to  18  pounds  per  100 
pounds  of  feed  eaten,  and  from  8  to  50  pounds  of  digest- 
ible carbohydrate  and  from  .4  to  1  pound  of  digestible 
fat  in  the  same  amount  of  feed  consumption.  This  sug- 
gests their  use  with  such  carbonaceous  concentrates  as 
chufas,  corn,  rice  by-products,  and  possibly  molasses,  in 
order  to  make  up  a  balanced  ration. 

Rye  pasture. — This  small  winter  grain  offers  a  good 
winter  pasture,  because  of  all  of  the  small  grains  it  makes 
the  most  growth  in  the  fall  and  winter  months.  It  is 
often  hogged  down  when  mature.  It  can  be  pastured 
from  December  to  March  or  April,  when  the  pigs  should 
be  removed  to  give  it  a  chance  to  make  grain,  putting 
the  pigs  back  in  again  in  May  or  June  to  finish  up  the 
crop.  Being  a  cereal,  it  is  naturally  of  a  carbonaceous 


140  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

character,  but  it  is  not  a  badly  balanced  feed.  The  feed- 
ing value  varies  greatly  on  account  of  the  different  stages 
of  growth  at  which  it  is  fed.  One  hundred  pounds  of  the 
feed  that  hogs  will  consume  on  rye  pasture  will  contain 
from  2.5  to  8  pounds  of  digestible  crude  protein,  from  13 
to  60  pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrate,  and  from  a  half 
to  a  pound  of  digestible  fat,  with  a  nutritive  ratio  of 
approximately  1 :  6.5.  This  suggests  the  combining  with 
it  of  a  winter  legume  like  vetch,  which  is  common  prac- 
tice, and  of  feeding  with  it  such  nitrogenous  feeds  as  soy 
beans,  garbage,  rape,  wheat  by-products,  and  meat  meal 
or  tankage. 

Wheat  by-products  (middlings,  shorts,  red  dog  flour). 
— These  feeds  should  only  be  resorted  to  when  other 
suitable  protein  concentrates  cannot  be  grown  on  the 
farm,  for  protein  feeds  can  generally  be  grown  more 
cheaply  than  they  can  be  bought.  Of  these  feeds,  the 
digestible  protein  per  100  pounds  will  run  from  10  to  15 
pounds,  of  digestible  carbohydrates  about  50  pounds,  and 
the  digestible  fats  from  3  to  5  pounds.  The  nutritive 
ratios  will  generally  run  about  1 :4.5,  which  suggests 
the  use  of  these  feeds  with  such  feeds  as  chufa  pasture, 
sweet  potato  pasture,  saccharine  and  non-saccharine 
sorghums,  corn,  and  rice  by-products.  These  feeds  are 
especially  valuable  in  making  slops  and  in  enriching 
garbage. 

Kentucky  blue  grass  pasture. — This  is  a  most  valuable 
winter  grass,  but  its  usefulness  is  confined  mostly  to 
Kentucky,  Tennessee,  North  Georgia,  North  Carolina, 
Mississippi  and  the  northern  southern  states.  The  seed 
are  usually  sown  in  September  at  the  rate  of  about  25 


FEEDING   SWINE  141 

pounds  to  the  acre,  after  which  time  it  is  permanent  if 
allowed  to  seed.  It  furnishes  grazing  from  July  to 
October  of  a  very  superior  sort,  containing  on  the  aver- 
age above  3  per  cent  of  digestible  protein,  about  20  per 
cent  of  digestible  carbohydrates  and  a  little  less  than  a 
pound  of  digestible  fat  per  100  pounds  of  grass.  The 
nutritive  ratio  shows  the  feed  to  be  carbonaceous  in 
nature,  having  a  nutritive  ratio  of  something  over  1 : 7, 
which  suggests  its  use  with  such  nitrogenous  feeds  as 
soy  beans,  cottonseed  meal,  alfalfa  hay,  linseed  meal, 
wheat  by-products,  and  tankage  and  meat  meal.  This 
would  be  a  most  important  feed  if  it  were  wider  in  its 
adaptability.  Fortunately,  where  it  leaves  off,  Bermuda 
is  the  grazing  "grass  that  supersedes  it,  and,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  this  is  a  valuable  swine-grazing  grass. 

Velvet  bean  pasture. — For  the  extreme  South  this 
summer  legume  is  a  most  valuable  grazing  crop.  Its 
usefulness  is  limited  farther  north  by  the  time  required 
for  the  maturing  of  the  plant,  six  months  generally  being 
required.  The  early  speckled  variety  matures  much 
sooner  than  the  Chinese.  By  means  of  its  beans  it  is 
valuable  to  supply  a  good  protein  foraging  crop  through 
winter.  The  yields  on  the  better  fields  have  amounted  to 
as  much  as  1^2  tons  of  beans  in  the  pod  per  acre. 

The  plant  is  an  annual  and  is  generally  seeded  in  April 
at  the  rate  of  six  or  eight  quarts  of  seed  per  acre  to 
supply  fall  and  winter  grazing  from  September  to  March. 
It  is  a  very  rank  grower.  As  a  general  rule  it  cannot  be 
satisfactorily  grown  north  of  33°  latitude.  It  is  a  heavy 
yielder,  making  from  40  to  60  bushels  of  seed,  and  is 
generally  grown  with  corn,  for  with  it  a  fairly  well- 
balanced  ration  is  made,  and  the  two  crops  are  ready  for 


142  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

grazing  at  the  same  time.  One  hundred  pounds  of  the 
feed  :onsumed  by  hogs  on  velvet  bean  pasture  will  run 
from  3  to  15,  7  to  45  and  .4  to  5  pounds  respectively  of 
digestible  protein,  carbohydrates  and  fats.  The  nutri- 
tive ratio  ranges  between  1 :  3  and  1 :  3.5,  which  suggests 
the  use  of  velvet  bean  pasture  with  such  feeds  as  chufas, 
sweet  potatoes,  saccharine  and  non-saccharine  sorghums. 

Red  clover  pasture. — This  is  a  rather  important 
legume  in  all  those  sections  where  blue  grass  grows 
well,  requiring  for  growth  the  same  soil  and  lime  condi- 
tions as  this  grass.  It  does  not  do  so  well  on  poor  sandy 
or  white  pine  soils.  The  seeds  are  generally  sown  in  the 
fall  farther  south,  and  in  the  spring  in  the  north,  at  the 
rate  of  15  or  20  pounds  per  acre,  yielding  pasture  from 
early  in  the  spring  until  July.  In  those  sections  where 
it  thrives  it  acts  not  only  as  a  pasture  crop,  but  as  a  cover 
and  nitrogen-gathering  crop  as  well.  It  is  especially 
valuable  as  a  feed  for  brood  sows  and  pigs,  for  it  tends  to 
make  good  bone  and  develop  a  strong  constitution.  It 
is  almost  a  balanced  ration  in  itself,  having  a  nutritive 
ratio  of  1:6,  and  the  remainder  of  the  ration  fed  with  it 
should,  therefore,  be  pretty  well  balanced.  Corn  and 
wheat  by-products  with  clover  make  an  ideal  ration. 

Cottonseed  meal. — This  valuable  by-product  of  the 
cottonseed  industry  is  becoming  of  more  and  more  value 
each  year  as  a  feed  for  swine.  In  the  past  its  consump- 
tion has  been  limited  by  the  dangers  accompanying  its 
feeding,  but  as  we  better  understand  it  we  can  safely  feed 
continually  larger  quantities.  It  is  not  adapted  for  con- 
tinuous long  feeding,  and  heavy  feeding  should  never 
exceed  60  days.  It  can,  therefore,  be  used  to  advantage 


FEEDING   SWINE  143 

in  the  last  feeding  period  prior  to  the  marketing  of  fat 
hogs.  Another  factor  that  will  conduce  to  greater  con- 
sumption is  that  greater  quantities  of  this  feed  can  be 
fed  when  the  hogs  are  on  the  pasture,  and  with  a  rapidly 
increasing  tendency  to  the  use  of  grazing  crops  the  in- 
creased consumption  of  this  feed  will  continue.  In  the 
feeding  of  cottonseed  meal  some  precautions  seem  neces- 
sary. In  no  case  should  over  one-fifth  of  the  ration  be 
made  up  of  this  feed,  and  in  the  case  of  young  animals 
the  amount  should  be  still  less.  Cottonseed  meal  is  one 
of  the  narrowest  feeds  we  have,  having  a  nutritive  ratio 
of  approximately  1 : 1.2,  which  suggests  its  use  in  con- 
nection with  rations  containing  corn,  chufas,  molasses, 
sweet  potatoes,  saccharine  and  non-saccharine  sorghums 
and  other  carbonaceous  feeds.  It  is  a  very  rich  feed,  100 
pounds  of  the  meal  containing  about  35,  25  and  8  pounds 
respectively  of  digestible  protein,  carbohydrates  and  fat. 
It  supplies  a  protein  cheaply  and  is  available  at  all  times 
and  at  all  places,  and  its  judicious  use  is  to  be  encouraged 
and  recommended. 

Other  less  important  feeds. — There  are  many  feeds  that 
do  remarkably  well  in  a  small  locality,  but  the  adapta- 
bility of  the  crop  is  not  general.  In  this  respect  Florida 
is  almost  in  a  class  by  itself,  for  in  addition  to  the  feeds 
discussed,  cassava,  beggar  weed,  Japan  cane,  St.  Augus- 
tine grass,  Mexican  clover,  Para  grass  and  Guinea  grass 
all  have  some  importance  in  swine  grazing.  In  addition 
to  these  feeds  mentioned,  there  are  localities  in  the  South 
where  such  legumes  as  white  and  alsike  clover  play  a 
part  in  the  feeding  of  swine,  and  where  such  grasses  as 
Italian  rye  grass,  teosinte,  Sudan  grass,  large  water 
grass,  foxtail  millets,  red  top,  crab  grass,  carpet  grass, 


144 


SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 


Colorado  grass,  perennial  ray  grass,  southern  canary 
grass,  big  blue  stem,  tall  fescue,  Texas  blue  grass,  barn- 
yard grass,  tall  oat  grass  and  Virginia  rye  grass  attain 
importance.  In  addition  to  these,  wheat  bran,  molasses, 


Feeding  city  garbage  on  the  farm  of  F.  W.  Clew,  near  New 
Orleans,  La. 

barley,  linseed  meal,  slaughterhouse  and  rice  by-products, 
lespedeza,  crimson  clover  and  wheat  pasture,  brome  and 
rescue  grass,  saccharine  and  non-saccharine  sorghums, 
and  the  seeds  of  wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye,  sweet  corn, 
velvet  beans,  cowpeas,  cottonseed  and  hog  goobers  play 
important  roles  in  some  localities.  Root  crops,  as  arti- 
chokes, carrots,  mangel-wurzels,  potatoes,  sugar  beets, 
rutabagas  and  turnips,  are  of  some  importance.  Whole 
milk  is  rarely  fed,  whey  is  not  available  in  any  quantity, 
but  some  buttermilk  and  skim  milk  are  fed.  Pumpkins, 
watermelons  and  squash  are  made  use  of  in  some  locali- 
ties, and  it  is  possible  that  legume  hays,  such  as  red 
clover,  alfalfa  and  cowpea,  may  be  used  to  a  small  extent. 


FEEDING  SWINE  145 

The  droppings  from  fattening  cattle  is  a  feed  of  impor- 
tance in  some  cattle-feeding  sections.  Frequently  near 
large  cities  garbage  is  fed  extensively  to  fattening  swine. 

Concentrated  commercial  feeding  stuffs. — For  several 
reasons  commercial  concentrated  feedstuffs  for  swine 
have  not  come  into  very  general  use.  They  are  subject 
to  considerable  adulteration  with  materials  having  low 
feeding  value.  Some  common  adulterants  or  fillers  are 
chaff,  oat  hulls,  peanut  hulls,  coffee  hulls,  screenings, 
corn  cob,  corn  bran,  oat  dust,  cottonseed  hulls  and  mill 
sweepings.  Most  states  provide  statutes  to  protect  the 
consumer  from  adulteration  of  feeds,  and  require  the 
manufacturer  to  guarantee  and  keep  the  standard  of  their 
products  up  to  certain  specifications.  Most  of  our  com- 
mercial feedstuffs,  such  as  bean  culls,  middlings,  cotton- 
seed meal,  linseed  meal,  shorts,  tankage,  meat  meal,  etc., 
are  the  by-products  of  other  industries.  These  kinds  of 
feedstuffs  have  their  places,  but  as  a  rule  they  should 
only  be  used  in  a  supplemental  way. 

Condimental  feeds. — For  all  practical  purposes  con- 
dimental  feeds  have  but  little  value,  and  as  a  general 
proposition  are  not  to  be  recommended.  Careful  experi- 
ments have  shown  that  swine  utilize  no  more,  if  as  much, 
of  their  feed  when  condiments  are  added.  Tonics  and 
alteratives  are  generally  present  in  these  feeds,  but  aside 
from  these  the  feed  value  is  negligible.  Well-known 
materials  are  used  in  the  compounding  of  these  proprie- 
tary articles,  and  where  such  medicines  are  called  for 
the  farmer  can  make  for  himself  simple  tonic  mixtures. 
He  can  do  this  a  great  deal  cheaper  than  he  can  purchase 
them. 


146  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

A  simple  mixture  for  preventing  worms  and  condi- 
tioning swine  that  may  be  easily  made  up  at  home  is 
that  recommended  by  Dr.  Carey  of  the  Alabama  Station. 
This  mixture  is  made  up  of : 

Pulverized  charcoal 10  pounds 

Air-slaked  lime 10  parts 

Hardwood  ashes 10  pounds 

Common  salt 5  pounds 

Pulverized  sulphate  of  iron 1  pound 

Sulphur 5  pounds 

This  should  be  mixed  thoroughly  and  placed  in  a  dry 
place,  preferably  in  a  self-feeder,  so  that  the  hogs  can  go 
to  it  at  will.  This  mixture  has  met  with  considerable 
success  in  keeping  down  worm  infestations  and  keeping 
the  hogs  in  a  healthy  condition. 

Hardening  of  fat. — In  the  making  of  pork  on  certain 
feeds,  notably  in  the  case  of  peanuts,  we  are  apt  to  have 
a  fat  that  is  too  soft  and  oily.  Frequently  such  pork  is 
discriminated  against  on  the  market,  and  it  is  up  to  the 
grower  to  either  harden  the  fat  in  some  way  or  to  sell  at 
a  sacrifice.  This  hardening  process  is  generally  accom- 
plished by  feeding  corn  or  corn  and  cottonseed  meal  in 
connection  with  the  peanuts  for  a  short  time  before 
placing  on  the  market.  Since  corn  cannot  always  be 
obtained  as  cheaply  as  some  other  feeds,  we  should  look 
for  other  possible  remedies  for  the  condition.  Above  all, 
the  degree  to  which  the  hog  is  fattened  is  an  important 
factor.  The  greater  the  quantity  of  fat  that  is  placed  on 
the  hog  the  softer  it  becomes.  We  should,  therefore,  be 
very  careful  not  to  fatten  our  pork  too  much,  and  es- 
pecially the  fattening  should  not  be  carried  beyond  that 
point  where  fattening  no  longer  pays.  According  to 
some  experimental  work  that  has  been  done,  we  know 


FEEDING  SWINE  147 

that  the  first  fat  that  is  placed  on  the  carcass  contains 
more  stearin  than  the  later  deposited  fats,  and  is  there- 
fore harder.  The  later  fats  are  composed  of  greater 
percentage  of  palmitin  and  olein  and  are  softer.  When 
we  cannot  feed  to  increase  the  proportion  of  stearin,  we 
had  best  not  fatten  to  too  high  a  degree  in  order  to  secure 
the  degree  of  hardness  of  fat  that  is  most  desirable. 

Balancing  rations. — We  have  for  many  years  heard 
much  of  balanced  rations.  Theoretically,  rations  should 
be  balanced  so  as  to  furnish  the  nutrients  in  the  proper 
proportions  and  yet  not  be  wasteful.  The  necessity  for 
providing  for  the  correct  proportion  of  different  nutrients 
results  from  the  fact  that  the  specific  uses  to  which 
nutrients  can  be  put  are  rather  limited.  To  a  limited 
extent  carbohydrates  and  fats  can  take  the  place  of  one 
another,  but  proteins  have  a  function  that  must  be  pro- 
vided for  with  proteins.  In  some  instances  we  have  an 
excess  of  protein  feeds,  while  in  other  sections  we  have  a 
shortage  of  proteins  as  compared  with  the  non-proteins. 
As  a  general  proposition  the  South  is  pretty  well  supplied 
with  proteins,  and  the  greatest  difficulty  generally  comes 
in  securing  an  adequate  quantity  of  carbohydrate  feeds. 
So  far  as  fats,  proteins  and  carbohydrates  are  concerned, 
it  is  an  easy  matter  to  pay  too  much  attention  to  the 
balancing  rations.  In  certain  instances,  however,  rations 
require  special  attention  to  see  that  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  ash  is  supplied  and  to  see  that  the  quality  of  the  pro- 
teins as  well  as  the  quantity  is  adequate. 

Calculating  of  rations. — From  published  tables  giving 
the  feed  requirements  for  swine,  and  from  tables  giving 
the  nutrients  contained  in  the  several  feeds,  it  is  possible 


148  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

to  calculate  an  accurately  balanced  ration  for  any  given 
herd  of  swine.  Thus,  the  mathematical  calculation  of  a 
ration  is  an  exact  science,  for  it  is  possible  to  figure 
accurately  the  feed  requirements  of  the  animal. 

Of  course,  under  exceptional  conditions  it  may  be  well 
to  calculate  the  rations  for  swine  where  the  feeding  con- 


Self-feeders   are   becoming   more    common   in  the   South. 
Photo  by  Earl  Hostettler  of  North  Carolina. 

sists  for  the  most  part  of  lot  feeding.  However,  investi- 
gations have  shown  that  under  average  southern  condi- 
tions quantity  of  food  is  more  often  deficient  than  quality. 
Hence,  the  best  plan  is  to  make  sure  of  the  quantity  and 
provide  for  the  quality  as  accurately  as  possible.  To 
facilitate  this,  our  swine  feeds  may  be  classified  into 
carbohydrate,  balanced  and  protein  feeds.  In  feeding,  it 
will  suffice  if  sufficient  quantities  of  feeds  are  given  and 
if  a  carbohydrate  feed  is  fed  along  with  a  protein  feed, 
or  vice  versa,  while  the  balanced  foodstuffs  may  consti- 
tute a  portion  of  the  ration  without  necessity  of  bal- 
ancing. If  swine  rations  are  calculated  in  this  crude 
manner,  it  will  be  a  step  in  the  right  direction  and  will 


FEEDING    SWINE  149 

be  far  superior  to  the  blind  way  in  which  we  have  been 
conducting  our  feeding  in  the  past. 

The  self-feeder. — This  is  a  mechanical  device  that 
enables  the  pig  or  hog  to  secure  feed  at  will.  In  prin- 
ciple the  self-feeder  consists  of  a  bin  to  hold  the  feed,  a 
feed  trap  through  which  the  feed  leaves  the  bin,  and  the 
trough.  Self-feeders  are  made  of  various  materials  and 
in  various  shapes  and  styles.  Wood  and  sheet  metal  are 
the  two  most  commonly  used  materials  in  self-feeder 
construction.  Self-feeders  can  be  made  at  home  or  they 
can  be  purchased.  Most  agricultural  colleges  and  experi- 
ment stations  now  furnish  free  plans  or  blue  prints  for 
their  construction. 

The  use  of  the  self-feeder.— While  the  use  of  the  self- 
feeder  in  pork  production  is  a  new  idea,  it  is  one  of  the 
most  economical,  practical,  labor-saving  and  efficient 
methods  we  can  employ,  especially  where  full  feeding  is 
desired.  The  importance  of  the  self-feeder  is  largely  the 
result  of  efforts  made  by  Mr.  John  M.  Evvard  of  the 
Iowa  Station,  who  has  secured  some  quite  favorable 
results.  It  can  be  safely  stated  that  the  self-feeder  has 
passed  the  experimental  stage,  and  its  use  is  to  be  gener- 
ally recommended  in  pork  production.  Earlier  maturity, 
with  the  resulting  saving  in  feed  and  labor,  is  made 
possible. 


CHAPTER  VII 
SWINE  MANAGEMENT 

Shelter  for  swine. — The  coat  of  hair  on  a  hog  is  com- 
paratively thin,  and  even  a  cold  summer  rain  will  cause 
considerable  discomfort. '  The  cold  of  winter,  even  in  the 
mild  climate  of  the  South,  is  disagreeable  to  the  hog,  and 


Monitor  type  winter  farrowing  house  on  farm  of  F.  W.  Clew, 
near  New  Orleans,  La. 

any  suffering  he  must  undergo  will  cost  his  owner  some- 
thing in  the  way  of  feed.  Some  sort  of  a  roof  and  enough 
siding  to  keep  out  the  wind  are  all  that  are  necessary  under 
most  conditions.  In  the  winter  a  good  bed  of  leaves  or 
straw  not  only  'adds  to  the  hog's  comfort  and  thrift,  but  a 
saving  of  feed  will  be  effected.  The  hogs  rarely  need  to 

150 


SWINE   MANAGEMENT  151 

be  confined  to  shelter,  but  it  should  be  so  placed  that 
they  can  make  use  of  it  at  will.  Shelter,  shade  and  run- 
ning water  are  the  most  desirable  adjuncts  to  any  swine- 
growing  plant  and  are  essential  to  a  proper  foundation. 
All  of  these  except  the  shelter  may  be  natural.  Under 
the  most  modern  system  of  pork  production  a  portable 
type  of  shelter  is  generally  advisable,  but  there  are  condi- 
tions under  which  a  permanent  or  stationary  hog  house 
is  to  be  recommended.  As  a  rule,  the  extent  to  which 
swine  can  be  grown  with  grazing  crops  and  the  extent 
to  which  attention  is  paid  to  breeding  rather  than  pork 
production  determine  the  type  of  shelter  that  is  best 
suited. 

Houses  and  inclosures. — Serviceability  is  all  important, 
and  many  have  spent  large  sums  in  making  shelters  for 
swine  that  were  not  serviceable  and  that  were  not  suited 
to  the  conditions.  The  matter  of  serviceability  is  largely 
a  matter  of  design,  and  is  dependent  on  soil,  climatic  and 
other  conditions.  Accessibility  must  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration. This  is  especially  applicable  in  the  case  of  a 
permanent  shelter  or  inclosure. 

Materials  used  in  construction. — Brick,  cement  and 
other  heavy  materials  can  be  used  only  in  the  larger  sta- 
tionary houses,  while  practically  all  portable  houses  are 
made  of  wood.  Most  of  the  material  that  should  be  used 
for  hog  houses  will  be  wood,  on  account  of  its  lightness 
and  cheapness.  Over  most  of  the  South  this  is  the  proper 
building  material  to  use,  and  in  most  cases  rough  lumber 
will  be  found  quite  good  enough. 

Sunlight. — Sunlight  is  one  of  the  best  germicides  we 
have,  and  with  ample  sunlight  the  dangers  from  disease 


152 


SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 


are  reduced  to  a  minimum.  The  houses  need  to  be 
located  where  the  sun  can  strike  them  at  least  a  part  of 
the  day,  and  the  houses,  if  of  the  closed  type,  should  have 


Half  monitor  type  winter  farrowing  house  on  Maple   Grove 
Farm,  Walton,  Ky. 

as  much  window  or  glass  in  the  tops  as  is  possible  and 
consistent.  In  the  planning  of  a  house  of  either  the  port- 
able or  stationary  type  provision  should  be  made  for 
ample  sunlight  inside  the  house,  for  it  offers  a  cheap 
means  of  keeping  disease  bacteria  and  parasites  in  check. 

Floors. — On  many  soils  the  earth  makes  as  good  a  floor 
as  is  required.  Cement  is  not  advisable  for  covering  the 
entire  floor,  but  where  used  it  has  the  advantage  of  being 
easily  kept  clean.  Cinders  and  clay  make  an  excellent 
floor  for  a  permanent  type  of  house.  Boards  will  usually 
be  found  to  give  the  best  satisfaction  where  earth  floors 
are  not  used.  If  the  earth  is  dry,  a  dirt  floor  is  good,  and 
if  properly  constructed,  with  a  binder  of  cinders,  there 


SWINE    MANAGEMENT  153 

will  be  but  little  dust.  Regardless  of  what  materials  the 
floor  is  made  of,  ample  bedding  should  be  provided  for 
the  comfort  of  the  hogs.  This  bedding  should  be 
changed  often  on  account  of  vermin  and  disease 

Drainage. — In  the  location  of  shelter  and  inclosures, 
whether  portable  or  stationary,  it  is  important  to  see  that 
proper  drainage  is  secured.  This  is  of  special  importance 
in  winter.  Shelter  for  breeding  swine  should  in  par- 
ticular be  located  so  as  to  provide  ample  drainage.  The 
house  should  never  be  located  in  a  low  place,  but  on  a 
rather  high  place,  with  ample  slope.  With  poor  drainage 
there  are  apt  to  be  worms  and  parasites  through  summer 
and  pneumonia  and  other  diseases  during  the  colder 
months. 

Ventilation. — It  is  just  as  important  to  the  health  of 
the  hog  that  its  house  be  provided  with  ample  ventilation 
as  it  is  to  our  health  that  the  air  in  our  homes  be  changed 
from  time  to  time.  Fortunately,  it  is  rare  that  hog 
houses  are  made  too  close,  but  such  is  sometimes  the 
case.  Nearly  all  hog  houses  are  so  arranged  that  the 
hogs  can  go  in  and  out  at  will,  the  opening  providing 
ample  ventilation  for  winter.  In  the  summer,  however, 
some  houses  are  inclined  to  heat  very  greatly,  and  in 
such  provision  should  be  made  at  the  top  for  ventilation. 
Windows  in  the  top  of  the  house  should  be  arranged  to 
provide  a  means  of  easy  ventilation  when  necessary. 
When  a  wooden  floor  is  used  in  hog  house  construction, 
provision  should  be  made  to  have  ventilation  underneath 
the  floor  to  keep  it  dry. 

Large  stationary  hog  house. — This  type  of  house 
should  be  built  to  provide  for  ample  sunlight.  Plenty  of 


154  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

windows  at  the  right  height  are  a  most  necessary  thing. 
Hinged  roofs  or  roof  sections  that  can  be  turned  back 
are  also  advantageous.  If  the  floor  is  made  of  cement, 
a  portion  of  it  may  be  overlaid  with  boards  for  sleeping 
quarters.  The  separate  pens  in  the  building  should  open 
into  separate  pens  outside,  but  where  only  a  few  hogs  are 
kept  and  the  building  stands  in  a  pasture  field,  the  differ- 
ent groups  of  hogs  may  learn  to  come  to  the  same  pens 
to  be  fed.  The  styles  of  this  type  of  house  are  numerous, 
but  the  fundamental  requirements  are  the  same. 

Shed-roofed  portable  house. — This  house  is  best  made 
in  detachable  sections.  The  sections  may  interlock  or  be 
hinged  or  slightly  nailed.  The  roof  may  slope  in  one 
direction  or  in  two.  The  hinges  may  be  at  the  highest 
part  of  the  roof  or  may  stand  at  right  angles  to  the  slope 
and  connect  sections.  This  facilitates  raising  portions  of 
the  roof  to  admit  sunlight  and  air.  If  the  houses  are 
made  without  projections  they  may  be  placed  close  to- 
gether in  winter.  Farmers'  Bulletin  438  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  gives  full  directions 
for  the  construction  of  hog  houses,  and  it  may  be  secured 
without  cost  upon  application  to  the  Secretary. 

The  A-shaped  portable  house. — The  A-shaped  portable 
house  may  be  made  portable  either  by  nailing  all  to- 
gether and  moving  it  on  runners  from  one  place  to 
another,  or  it  may  be  made  in  sections  that  interlock  but 
which  are  easily  detachable.  The  sections  may  be  put  on 
a  wagon  to  be  moved.  The  house  made  of  sections  is 
desirable  from  another  standpoint,  since  it  permits  of 
greater  ease  in  cleaning  and  can  be  used  to  admit  a 
greater  amount  of  sunshine. 


SWINE   MANAGEMENT 


155 


Movable  shelter  houses. — A  very  useful  shelter,  es- 
pecially for  summer  use,  can  be  made  with  a  roof  and  one, 
two  or  three  sides,  as  may  be  desired.  Some  of  these 
have  no  sides  at  all,  but  have  a  low  roof  and  are  intended 
primarily  for  protection  from  the  sun.  These  are  more 
necessary  on  some  farms  than  others,  and  if  one  has  no 


The  common  A-shaped  portable  hog  house. 

natural  shelter  in  grazing  patches  or  lots,  something  of 
this  style  will  be  very  useful,  for  it  is  cheaply  con- 
structed, can  be  removed  from  a  field  as  soon  as  the 
grazing  is  over,  so  that  it  will  not  be  in  the  way  of 
ground  cultivation  and  preparation  for  the  next  crop. 

Sleeping  quarters. — The  same  shelter  that  protects  the 
hogs  from  the  sun  can  be  used  as  well  for  sleeping 
quarters  in  the  field,  but  when  so  used  it  becomes  much 
more  serviceable  if  one  or  two  sides  are  put  up.  No 
flooring  will  be  necessary  in  most  cases,  but  if  the  soil  is 


156 


SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 


damp  and  muddy,  a  floor  in  a  portion  or  under  all  of  the 
roof  may  be  advisable.  It  is  only  in  the  large  stationary 
houses  that  one  may  need  to  consider  the  construction  of 
separate  sleeping  and  feeding  quarters.  Comfortable  and 
healthy  sleeping  quarters  are  of  sufficient  importance  to 
warrant  some  special  attention. 

Farrowing  pens. — Where  breeding  swine  are  kept  it 
often  becomes  advisable  to  have  a  few  separate  pens  for 
the  exclusive  use  of  the  sows  at  the  time  they  drop  their 
pigs  and  for  a  time  thereafter.  Such  pens  are  called 
farrowing  pens  and  are  constructed  in  the  usual  manner, 
with  the  exception  that  a  railing  is  placed  around  the 


Cheap  type  small  farrowing  house  and  pen. 
Lippincott  of  Maryland. 


Courtesy  H.  S. 


sides  about  eight  or  ten  inches  from  the  floor  and  allowed 
to  extend  out  some  six  or  eight  inches,  so  that  if  the  sow 
lies  down  against  the  side  of  the  house  any  pigs  that 
happen  to  be  in  the  way  will  be  given  a  chance  to  escape 
over-lying.  A  protective  railing  of  this  sort  can  be  placed 
in  almost  any  type  of  house,  so  that  it  can  be  readily  con- 
verted into  a  farrowing  pen  without  much  cost  or  trouble. 


SWINE   MANAGEMENT 


157 


Pens  and  inclosures. — It  is  a  lack  of  pens  and  in- 
closures  on  many  farms  that  hinders  many  from  raising 
hogs.  What  we  want  in  the  way  of  pen's  is  something 
that  is  satisfactory  yet  cheap.  In  lot  construction  the 
materials  to  be  used  will  depend  on  several  factors  and 
conditions.  Board  fences  are  sometimes  advisable,  but 


A-type  of  individual  farrowing  houses  in  use  on  farm  of  F.  W. 
Clew,  near  New  Orleans,  La. 

under  most  conditions  a  wire  fence  with  wooden  posts 
will  be  most  economical.  Around  the  hog  houses,  es- 
pecially if  the  houses  are  permanent,  a  permanent  system 
of  lots  should  be  constructed.  If  the  houses  are  portable, 
a  portable  fence  may  also  be  used  to  advantage.  The 
pens  and  inclosures  should  be  arranged  according  to  the 
hog  house  or  houses,  according  to  the  water  supply  and 
according  to  the  grazing  patches.  In  the  arrangement 
and  location  of  lots  each  farm  offers  a  special  problem  in 
itself. 

Fencing  materials. — In  the  permanent  or  stationary 
fences  posts  are  used.  These  may  be  of  several  kinds  of 
wood,  of  cement,  steel  or  of  rock.  The  material  of  the 
fence  itself  may  be  the  same  in  the  case  of  portable  or 
drift  fences  as  in  the  stationary  fence.  Boards  are  the 


158  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

most  common  materials  used  in  drift  fences,  but  wire  can 
be  used.  In  permanent  fences  wire  is  probably  the  most 
commonly  used  material.  In  portable  fences  the  fence  is 
supported  by  braces  at  the  end  of  each  panel,  and  with 
some  a  stake  is  driven  down,  to  which  the  brace  is  lightly 
tacked.  Drift  fences  are  about  as  cheaply  constructed  as 
permanent  fences,  because  the  use  of  posts  is  done  away 
with,  and  they  have  additional  advantages  in  that  they 
can  be  continually  kept  in  use,  thus  requiring  a  small 
total  length  of  fence,  and  they  are  readily  taken  out  of 
the  way  to  prepare  land  and  cultivate  the  grazing  crops. 

Water  supply. — There  are  but  few  farms  that  have  a 
stream  that  is  adapted  to  supply  water  to  all  fields. 
Where  it  is  possible  and  feasible  an  artificial  water 
supply  system  is  best  suited,  for  it  is  under  control  and 
clean  water  can  always  be  provided.  A  small  tank  with  a 
hydraulic  ram  is  an  ideal  method  of  water  supply  where 
the  ram  can  be  used.  If  no  stream  is  available  for  a  ram 
a  pump  and  well  can  be  used  to  supply  the  water.  In  the 
arrangement  of  the  lots  the  water  supply  should  be  taken 
into  consideration.  Not  only  is  water  needed  for  drink- 
ing purposes,  but  some  is  needed  in  the  wallows,  for 
mixing  feeds  and  for  cleaning  up.  A  supply  of  ten 
gallons  per  day  per  hog  should  be  available  regardless  of 
the  source,  and  it  should  be  placed  so  as  to  be  of  greatest 
value  to  the  hog  and  still  be  economically  supplied. 

Bedding. — In  the  sleeping  quarters,  whether  they  be 
for  brood  sows  or  for  fattening  swine,  attention  should 
be  given  to  the  bedding.  It  should  be  changed  often  for 
sanitary  reasons.  It  should  not  be  so  damp  as  to  be 
soggy  and  unhealthy,  and  neither  should  it  be  so  dry  as 


SWINE   MANAGEMENT  159 

to  be  dusty  and  cause  lung  troubles.  If  the  place  is  in- 
clined to  be  damp,  such  materials  as  sawdust,  dry  sand 
and  straw  should  be  used  freely.  If  the  place  is  already 
inclined  to  be  too  dry  and  dusty,  fresh  sawdust,  cinders 
and  straw  may  be  used  to  advantage. 

The  herdsman. — Other  things  being  equal,  the  owner 
himself  makes  the  best  herdsman.  In  addition  to  the 
experience,  the  herdsman  must  have  a  natural  love  for 
his  pigs.  A  noticeable  feature  of  a  good  herdsman  is 
that  he  soon  knows  accurately  each  individual  in  the 
herd,  not  only  knowing  its  physical  conformation,  but 
also  its  behavior  and  ability  to  respond  to  treatment. 
Painstaking  care  and  constant  attention  are  called  for 
from  the  herdsman.  He  should  be  a  willing  worker,  with 
intuition  and  judgment,  especially  at  such  times  as  far- 
rowing, when  the  loss  of  a  litter  means  the  loss  of  at 
least  six  months'  time  with  one  sow,  which,  counting 
feeding  and  interest  on  the  investment,  soon  amounts  to 
an  appreciable  sum.  Good  herdsmen  are  scarce,  but  if 
one  desires  a  good  one  and  can  secure  one  at  a  little 
additional  cost,  it  is  generally  an  economical  investment. 

One  litter  or  two. — Something  like  half  of  the  sows  are 
only  permitted  to  have  but  one  litter  a  year,  which  comes 
generally  in  the  spring.  Since  the  period  of  gestation  is 
only  about  112  days,  and  since  pigs  can  be  weaned  readily 
at  two  months  of  age,  it  is  entirely  possible  and  feasible 
to  grow  two  litters  a  year,  two  months  being  allowed  for 
the  sow  to  rest  and  become  rebred  in.  It  is  not  eco- 
nomical for  the  sow  to  raise  but  one  litter,  and  on  any 
well-regulated  farm  two  litters  will  be  obtained.  So  far 
as  the  investment  is  concerned,  two  litters  cost  about  the 


160  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

same  as  one,  and  since  the  sow  must  be  maintained,  the 
additional  feed  cost  is  not  much  greater.  The  great 
trouble  has  been  that  the  food  supply  is  always  more 
abundant  through  the  summer  and  fall,  while  it  is  gener- 
ally scarce  during  the  late  winter  and  early  spring.  The 
aim  should  be  to  grow  two  litters  a  year,  but  to  do  this 
will  require  greater  skill  in  the  arranging  for  feed  and  in 
the  caring  for  fall  pigs,  which  are,  as  a  rule,  a  little  more 
difficult  to  raise  than  the  spring  pigs. 

Little  pigs  need  exercise. — Provision  should  always  be 
made  to  see  that  the  little  pigs  do  not  lack  for  exercise. 
Fortunately,  under  pasture  systems  of  raising,  provision 
is  automatically  made  for  exercise.  The  reason  we  desire 
the  little  pigs  to  have  exercise  is  that  the  bone  may  be 
developed  and  that  they  may  have  ample  constitutional 
capacity. 

Runts. — In  nearly  every  litter  there  is  one  runt,  and 
frequently  there  are  two  or  three.  When  the  litters  are 
quite  large  it  may  be  economy  to  kill  these  runts.  If  the 
litter  is  small,  it  pays  to  worry  along  with  them,  and 
after  a  time  all  of  the  runts  can  be  placed  either  in  a  lot 
or  grazing  patch  to  themselves,  where  they  can  be  given 
special  attention  and  feed.  The  occurrence  of  runts  can- 
not be  avoided,  but  it  can  be  mitigated  by  ample  and 
judicious  feeding  of  the  pregnant  sow.  In  by  far  the 
majority  of  cases  the  lack  of  size  has  resulted  from  a  lack 
of  nutrition,  and  it  is  easily  overcome  if  means  can  be 
made  for  special  nourishment  for  a  time  for  the  runts. 

Marking  the  litters. — It  is  desirable  to  mark  the  litters 
in  the  case  of  pure-bred  swine  in  order  that  the  ancestry 
may  be  definitely  known,  Perhaps  the  easiest  system  of 


SWINE   MANAGEMENT  161 

marking  is  by  means  of  notches  in  the  ears.  A  single 
notch  in  the  outer  rim  of  the  right  ear  indicates  that  the 
pig  belongs  to  the  first  litter  born  that  season.  The 
second  litter  is  marked  by  two  notches  in  the  outer  rim 
of  the  right  ear.  Litter  No.  3  is  marked  by  a  single  notch 
in  the  outer  rim  of  the  left  ear.  A  pig  of  the  tenth  litter 
is  marked  by  a  single  notch  in  the  inner  rim  of  the  right 
ear.  A  pig  of  the  thirtieth  litter  has  a  single  notch  in 
the  inner  rim  of  the  left  ear.  A  notch,  therefore,  has  a 
value  of  1,  3,  10  or  30,  according  to  its  location  in  the 
outer  rim  of  the  right  or  left  ear  or  the  inner  rim  of  the 
right  or  left  ear.  The  number  of  the  litter  to  which  a  pig 
belongs  is  indicated  by  the  sum  of  the  values  of  all  of  the 
notches  present.  A  hundred  litters  in  the  same  herd  can 
be  marked  by  this  system.  It  is  useless  to  try  to  give 
each  pig  an  individual  number,  for  all  of  the  pigs  in  one 
litter  should  have  the  same  ancestry. 

Fall  vs.  spring  pigs. — As  has  been  pointed  out  in  a 
previous  paragraph,  spring  pigs  have  an  advantage  over 
fall  pigs  in  that  they  come  at  a  season  of  the  year  when 
they  will  have  an  abundance  of  feeds  to  grow  on  during 
the  summer  and  an  abundance  to  fatten  on  in  the  fall. 
Fall  pigs  come  at  a  time  when  the  feeds  for  growing 
come  high  and  when  the  grazing  feeds  for  fattening  at 
an  early  age  are  almost  not  to  be  had.  The  result  is  that 
fall  pigs  must  be  kept  longer  than  spring  pigs  before 
marketing,  and  the  cost  is  thereby  increased  that  much. 
A  properly  equipped  breeder  will  arrange  for  nearly  as 
m*ny  pigs  to  be  dropped  in  the  fall  as  in  the  spring  and 
will  arrange  to  get  them  off  to  market  as  early  as 
possible  in  the  summer  or  early  fall,  when  prices  are 
generally  good.  The  advantages  of  spring  pigs  over  fall 


162 


SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 


pigs  are  thus  largely  offset  by  a  slightly  cheaper  feed  in 
the  fall  and  early  winter,  and  by  being  able  to  get  them 
to  market  before  the  spring  pigs  at  a  time  when  hogs  are 
generally  a  little  higher.  One  should  lay  special 
emphasis  on  the  supply  of  feeds  for  the  late  winter  and 


Grazing  lots  make  fall  litters  as  profitable  as  spring  farrowings 
on  the  farm  of  Joe  R.  Martin  in  Georgia. 

spring  months,  and  by  a  proper  system  of  feed  supply 
the  fall  pigs  can  be  made  just  as  profitable  as  spring  pigs. 

Early  castration  best. — Many  hog  raisers  let  the  pigs 
get  too  old  before  castrating.  The  castrating  should  be 
done  at  about  five  weeks  of  age,  for  the  reason  that  the 
hog  is  then  easier  to  hold,  loses  but  little  blood,  and  seems 
but  little  disturbed  by  the  operation.  This  early  castra- 
tion also  prevents  miscellaneous  breeding  and  breeding 
too  young.  The  details  of  the  operation  are  given  in  the 
next  chapter. 


SWINE    MANAGEMENT  163 

Young  vs.  old  sows. — There  is  but  little  difference 
between  the  pigs  of  young  and  old  sows.  Owing  to  the 
fact  that  gilts  with  the  first  litter  do  not  usually  do  as 
well  as  older  sows,  it  seems  advisable  where  possible  to 
use  sows,  other  things  being  equal.  It  is  nearly  always 
true  that  bred  gilts  can  be  obtained  at  lower  figures  than 
older  tried  sows,  and  this  largely  accounts  for  their  more 
general  use  by  those  entering  the  swine  business.  It 
seems  that  the  best  sows  for  breeding  purposes  are  there- 
fore the  young  sows,  but  not  gilts.  With  the  old  sows 
the  period  of  usefulness  is  too  limited,  and  after  a  certain 
age  is  reached  they  are  apt  to  become  barren.  Other 
things  being  equal,  a  sow  with  the  second  litter  is  about 
as  good  as  one  can  do,  because  she  will  take  good  care  of 
her  pigs  and  her  period  of  usefulness  will  be  greatest.  A 
sow  has  generally  lived  the  best  part  of  her  life  during  the 
first  seven  years.  Some  fail  before  that  age  and  some  exceed 
it.  Some  sows  will  breed  regularly  for  ten  years  and  more. 

Pigs  from  old  and  young  sows. — As  pointed  out  in  the 
previous  paragraph,  the  age  at  which  the  sow  is  of  great- 
est usefulness  is  between  the  time  of  her  second  litter  and 
the  time  when  her  breeding  powers  begin  to  fail.  Some 
are  inclined  to  discriminate  against  the  pigs  of  both  the 
first  and  second  litters,  but  there  seems  to  be  no  just 
ground  for  such  discrimination.  Owing  to  the  fact  that 
pigs  coming  from  sows  that  have  had  two  litters  have 
been  more  fully  nourished  than  in  the  case  of  younger 
sows,  they  may  have  some  slight  advantage.  With  the 
sows  of  the  first  litter  the  pigs  suffer  some  because  during 
pregnancy  the  sow  continues  her  growth  and  some  extra 
nutrition  is  required,  which  is  obtained  at  the  expense  of 
the  nutrition  of  the  pigs. 


164  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

Cost  of  a  fifty-pound  pig. — It  is  possible  for  a  fifty- 
pound  pig  to  be  produced  at  figures  varying  all  the  way 
from  $5  to  $50.  To  figure  the  cost  of  a  pig  at  birth,  one 
will  have  to  figure  the  cost  of  the  sow,  interest  and  in- 
surance on  her  for  six  months,  and  the  cost  of  her  upkeep 
for  six  months.  Interest,  taxes,  insurance  and  other  fixed 
charges  would  amount  to  $5  for  the  six  months.  The 
feed  cost  for  six  months  will  range  from  $10  to  $18.  If 
the  cost  amounts  to  $18,  and  there  are  six  pigs,  each  will 
cost  $3  at  birth.  If  the  cost  is  $18,  and  there  are  nine 
pigs  in  the  litter,  the  cost  at  birth  will  be  about  $2,  which 
is  a  fair  average  cost  figure.  It  costs  all  the  way  from 
less  than  50  cents  to  over  a  dollar  per  week  to  raise  a 
pig.  At  eight  weeks  of  age  the  pig  should  weigh  close  to 
50  pounds,  and  at  a  maximum  of  $1  per  week  for  feed 
and  care,  and  at  $2  each  for  cost  at  birth,  the  total  cost 
would  be  about  $10  each.  In  many  instances  it  will  be 
possible  to  produce  pigs  at  eight  weeks  of  age  for  half 
the  above,  or  for  $5  each. 

Weaning  the  pig. — The  time  to  wean  a  pig  is  when  it 
is  from  six  to  eight  weeks  of  age.  The  weaning  process 
should  consist  in  a  gradual  feeding  of  other  feeds  until 
the  pig  can  get  along  without  its  mother's  milk.  After 
weaning  the  quantity  of  feed  should  be  increased  as 
rapidly  as  the  pig's  appetite  indicates.  The  proportion 
of  concentrates  to  be  fed  will  depend  on  what  other  feeds 
accompany  it. 

Care  of  the  sow  and  pigs  at  weaning  time. — The  wean- 
ing of  pigs  should  not  be  sudden.  By  the  time  the  pigs 
are  eight  weeks  of  age  they  will  have  become  able  to  eat 
almost  anything  the  older  hogs  can  eat,  and  if  they  have 


SWINE   MANAGEMENT  165 

been  fed  separately  from  the  sows,  they  will  have  ac- 
quired more  dependence  on  other  feeds  than  the  sow's 
milk.  And,  if  they  have  become  gradually  accustomed 
to  being  absent  from  the  sow,  the  weaning  may  be  finally 
consummated  by  permitting  them  to  return  to  the  sow 
once  a  day  for  two  or  three  days,  meanwhile  lessening 
the  sow's  feed  so  that  less  milk  will  be  produced.  The 
gradual  weaning  is  as  much  for  the  sake  of  the  mother 
as  the  pigs.  The  sow  may  be  expected  to  come  into  heat 
a  few  days  after  the  pigs  are  weaned  and  regularly 
thereafter  until  bred. 

Care  of  the  gilts. — After  weaning  the  gilt  will  require 
but  little  special  care  and  attention  up  to  the  breeding 
age.  Ample  grazing  crops  should  be  supplied,  and  she 
should  be  forced,  especially  with  roughages  and  bulky 
feeds,  as  the  middle  will  be  developed  in  size,  which  will 
be  a  distinct  advantage  later.  She  should  not,  however, 
be  fed  so  as  to  make  her  excessively  fat.  At  eight  or  nine 
months  she  may  be  bred,  after  which  some  further  atten- 
tion will  be  required.  She  should  not  be  placed  with 
larger  animals  and  the  supply  of  proteins  should  be  in- 
creased. The  gilt  usually  grows  but  little  during  the 
later  stages  of  pregnancy,  which  shows  the  importance 
of  late  breeding  and  liberal  feeding. 

Age  at  which  to  breed. — A  mistake  that  is  commonly 
made  is  to  breed  too  young.  The  result  is  that  the  gilt 
is  forced  not  only  to  nourish  herself,  but  she  must  also 
nourish  the  developing  embryos.  She  cannot  do  both  of 
these  perfectly.  If  pregnancy  intervenes  before  the 
growth  process  has  advanced  beyond  a  certain  point,  not 
only  will  the  final  size  of  the  sow  be  affected,  but  she 


166  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

will  never  make  as  good  a  mother  as  she  would  have  had 
she  been  more  nearly  mature.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  this  extra  drain  on  the  gilt  does  not  come  only  dur- 
ing pregnancy,  but  it  exists  all  the  time  she  is  suckling 
the  pigs.  Under  no  circumstances  should  a  gilt  be  bred 
so  that  she  will  farrow  under  one  year  of  age 

The  time  to  breed. — Perhaps  the  most  favorable  time 
for  a  litter  of  pigs  to  come  is  in  the  early  spring,  when 
they  can  feed  on  the  newly  starting  grass.  A  second 
litter,  coming  in  September  or  October,  should  be  pro- 
vided for.  Our  southern  climate  will  permit  of  this,  and 
especially  do  they  seem  to  do  well  where  a  good  swamp 
pasture  is  accessible. 

The  breeding  season. — Sows  will  usually  come  in  heat 
a  short  time  after  the  pigs  are  weaned  and  about  every 
twenty-one  days  thereafter.  The  pigs  should  suckle  for 
about  eight  weeks.  When  the  sow  comes  in  heat  she 
should  be  taken  to  a  boar,  and  after  a  single  uninter- 
rupted service  she  may  just  as  well  be  taken  back  to  her 
lot.  The  sow,  when  in  heat,  usually  indicates  it  by 
swelling  of  the  vulva  and  by  a  change  in  voice.  Instead 
of  a  squeal  there  is  a  rather  long-drawn-out  roar.  When 
a  sow  fails  to  come  into  heat  there  is  something  physio- 
logically wrong.  Of  course,  they  will  not  come  in  heat 
if  too  old  or  if  they  have  been  bred.  If  the  pigs  are  not  yet 
weaned  they  need  not  be  expected  to  come  in  heat,  and  if 
excessively  fat  they  are  not  so  apt  to  come  in.  The 
period  may  sometimes  be  hastened  by  placing  the  sow  in 
the  same  lot  with  the  boar.  If  a  sow  comes  in  heat  but 
will  not  catch,  the  best  thing  that  can  generally  be 
done  is  to  fatten  her  for  pork,  unless  she  is  an  ex- 


SWINE    MANAGEMENT  167 

ceptionally  valuable  sow,  when  other  expedients  may  be 
resorted  to. 

Age  and  time  to  breed  pure-bred  sows. — A  great  many 
of  our  best  breeders  make  a  practice  of  having  their  gilts 
bred  to  drop  pigs  at  one  year  of  age,  and,  if  they  have 
been  properly  pushed  along,  this  is  not  too  young. 
Others  seem  to  prefer  to  wait  until  later.  In  farrowing 
at  from  one  year  to  fifteen  months  of  age  gilts  from  one 
spring  may  farrow  the  first  litter  the  next  spring.  Fall 
pigs  are  usually  a  little  slower  growing  than  spring  pigs 
and  fall-farrowed  gilts  may  frequently  be  bred  to  farrow 
in  the  winter  or  early  spring  after  they  are  a  year  of  age. 
While  most  breeders  prefer  spring  litters  on  account  of 
the  food  supply  for  the  several  months  to  come,  fall 
litters  or  litters  at  any  other  season  are  all  right  and  can 
be  made  successful.  Throughout  the  southern  states  the 
market  for  pure-bred  pigs  is  best  in  the  late  winter 
months  and  pigs  farrowed  in  the  early  fall  can  often  be 
sold  early  to  good  advantage. 

Period  of  gestation. — After  the  ova  or  germ  cells  of  the 
sow  have  been  fertilized,  gestation  or  pregnancy  starts, 
which  ends  with  the  expulsion  of  the  pigs  from  the 
uterus.  The  length  of  the  period  of  gestation  is  fairly 
constant  and  will  vary  but  little  either  way  from  112 
days.  Heavy  feeding  tends  to  hasten  and  light  feeding  to 
retard  the  farrowing  date.  Early-maturing  types  also 
require  slightly  less  time.  A  sudden  cold  spell,  nervous 
excitement,  the  sight  of  another  sow  farrowing,  the  sight 
or  taste  of  fresh  meat  or  blood,  and  certain  drugs,  as 
ergot,  cotton  root  extract  and  digitalis,  may  cause  pre- 
mature termination  of  gestation. 


168  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

Care  of  pregnant  sows. — In  the  case  of  the  gilt  in  par- 
ticular, attention  should  be  given  to  ample  food  supply, 
for  she  not  only  has  to  have  additional  feed  for  the 
developing  pigs,  but  for  the  continuation  of  her  growth. 
The  quantity  of  concentrates  or  grain  will  have  to  be  in- 
creased as  pregnancy  advances  and  the  quantity  of  feed 
should  be  according  to  appetite.  Pasture  is  especially 
valuable,  for  it  gives  ample  exercise,  which  is  necessary 
to  the  pregnant  sow.  After  2^  or  three  months  has 
been  reached,  the  pregnant  sows  should  be  placed  in  a 
lot  together,  away  from  other  hogs,  and  especially  away 
from  large  stock.  The  food  supply  should  have  variety, 
and  it  should  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to  encourage  growth. 
The  pregnant  sow  has  a  strong  natural  tendency  to 
tatten,  this  being  nature's  way  to  provide  for  ample  food 
for  the  coming  pigs  in  case  there  comes  a  shortage  in 
food  supply.  It  is  possible  to  make  the  sow  too  fat  and 
clumsy.  Thus  the  feeds  must  not  be  too  fattening,  but 
should  contain  a  high  percentage  of  protein.  Cowpeas, 
alfalfa,  peanuts,  velvet  beans,  and  other  protein  feeds 
have  special  value.  A  little  tankage  or  meat  meal  is  a 
good  thing  for  brood  sows  at  all  times,  and  especially 
during  pregnancy.  Care  should  always  be  taken  to  see 
that  too  much  corn  is  not  fed  for  too  long  a  time  during 
pregnancy.  The  same  may  be  said  of  other  highly  car- 
bonaceous or  fattening  feeds. 

Abortion. — We  frequently  have  cases  of  abortion  or 
slinking  of  pigs.  This  may  be  brought  on  by  several 
things.  It  may  be  due  to  a  contagion  or  disease.  It  is 
generally  the  result  of  some  accident,  such  as  a  kick  from 
a  horse  or  mule,  from  over-heating,  or  from  rough  han- 
dling otherwise.  It  may  also  be  due  to  something  eaten, 


SWINE  MANAGEMENT  169 

as  many  poisons  occur  in  certain  feeds  that  are  capable 
of  producing  premature  birth  when  sufficient  quantities 
are  consumed.  When  abortion  takes  place  during  the 
later  stages  of  pregnancy,  some  difficulties  may  be  ex- 
perienced in  handling  the  surplus  of  milk  in  the  udder. 


Winter  farrowing  house  on  farm  of  N.  H.  G.  Balfour  in 
North  Carolina. 

In  most  cases  this  milk  will  be  absorbed  without  trouble, 
but  in  other  cases  some  treatment  will  have  to  be  given 
to  check  and  dry  up  the  secretion.  In  some  instances 
abortion  or  premature  farrowing  becomes  constitutional 
and  chronic,  when  the  best  thing  that  can  be  done  is  to 
fatten  the  sow  for  pork. 

Farrowing. — Prior  to  the  delivery  of  the  young  certain 
changes  take  place  with  the  mother,  which  indicate  the 
approaching  event.  The  causes  of  these  changes  are 
none  too  well  understood,  but  they  are  purely  physio- 
logical and  normal,  and  are  probably  brought  about 
through  the  agency  of  harmones  or  internal  secretions. 


170  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

Among  other  changes  the  udder  becomes  congested  and 
swollen.  At  first  the  secretion  is  waxy,  but  it  later  de- 
velops into  colostrum  and  then  to  normal  milk.  Just 
prior  to  delivery  the  belly  sinks  and  seemingly  enlarges. 
The  vulva  becomes  congested  and  swollen  and  quite 
elastic,  capable  of  being  widely  distended.  The  cartilagi- 
nous connections  between  the  bones,  especially  bones 
near  the  pelvic  region,  become  very  elastic.  An  uneasi- 
ness and  restlessness  are  experienced.  Seclusion  is  gen- 
erally sought  and  an  attempt  is  often  made  to  make  a 
rather  elaborate  bed.  The  gestation  ceases  with  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  embryos  during  labor,  which  normally 
results  involuntarily  from  violent  abdominal  muscular 
exertions  and  certain  other  physiological  activities.  In 
some  instances  it  may  be  necessary  to  provide  assistance 
to  farrowing  sows.  This  is  because  difficult  farrowing 
is  frequently  encountered,  which  may  result  disastrously 
to  both  the  sow  and  the  pigs.  High  condition,  disease, 
weakness,  wrong  presentation,  injury  and  abnormalities 
may  cause  these  difficulties.  Aid  is  imperative  in  cases 
where  much  difficulty  is  experienced,  and  it  often  be- 
comes necessary  to  assist  in  removal  of  the  pigs  by 
means  of  pig  forceps,  which  may  be  of  various  types 
and  makes. 

The  sows  should  be  watched  carefully  as  the  farrow- 
ing date  approaches.  About  112  days  from  service  she 
may  be  expected  to  farrow.  In  the  colder  months  the 
farrowing  should  take  place  under  shelter,  preferably 
in  a  well-lighted  ventilated  and  roomy  farrowing  pen. 
The  herdsman  should  watch  all  his  sows  carefully  dur- 
ing farrowing  time,  but  should  not  interfere  in  the  least 
unless  it  becomes  necessary.  Soon  after  the  pigs  have 


Thr-inr-3       N       mJ    <•       '** 


172  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

been  dropped  the  pigs  should  be  inspected  to  see  that 
they  are  all  right  and  to  remove  any  dead  ones.  In  the 
case  of  pure-bred  swine  the  number,  sex,  and  farrowing 
date  must  be  recorded  so  that  the  pigs  can  be  registered. 

Management  of  brood  sows. — Aside  from  the  matter 
of  adequate  feed  supply  of  the  right  sort,  there  is  noth- 
ing of  so  great  importance  to  the  success  of  the  swine 
business  as  proper  brood  sow  management.  So  far  as 
the  sows  are  concerned,  we  must  take  into  account  such 
factors  as  age,  breed,  condition,  conformation,  quality 
and  disposition  in  their  relation  to  reproduction.  In  ad- 
dition such  external  factors  as  feed  supply,  shelter,  care 
and  attention  should  be  given  due  consideration.  In  all 
our  efforts  to  secure  maximum  returns  we  must  take 
every  factor  at  what  it  is  worth  and  constantly  keep  in 
mind  in  brood  sow  management  that  what  is  wanted  is 
that  animal  that  will  mother  the  greatest  number  of 
thrifty  pigs  that  will  return  a  profit  to  their  grower. 

Caring  for  the  boar. — While  boars  as  a  rule  can  stand 
more  rough  treatment  and  lack  of  care  than  any  other 
class  of  hogs  they  respond  readily  to  good  treatment. 
They  require  a  little  different  treatment  from  all  other 
classes  of  hogs.  It  is  an  easy  matter  to  make  them  too 
fat.  They  need  pasture  and  only  moderate  amounts  of 
concentrates.  The  boar  should  not  be  allowed  to  run 
with  the  sows,  as  he  will  worry  both  himself  and  them. 
Boars  need  some  attention  after  they  attain  maturity  to 
keep  their  tusks  cut  so  that  they  will  not  injure  people 
or  stock.  A  very  good  way  to  do  this  is  by  means  of  a 
bolt  cutter.  When  not  on  pasture  and  when  lot  fed, 
they  may  need  their  feet  trimmed  occasionally.  If  the 


SWINE   MANAGEMENT  173 

skin  becomes  too  harsh  and  rough  it  may  be  improved 
by  applying  crude  oil,  old  lard  or  other  greases.  Above 
all,  the  boar  should  be  kept  gentle  if  such  is  possible. 
He  should  be  handled  often,  firmly,  but  gently. 

Bad  habits. — Practically  all  bad  habits  to  which  swine 
are  subject  are  either  the  direct  or  indirect  result  of  poor 
feeding  or  faulty  management.  Hogs  that  are  closely 
confined  about  the  house  or  barn  frequently  develop 
such  bad  habits  as  chicken  eating,  rooting,  fence  break- 
ing or  climbing,  ill  temper,  chasing  other  animals,  eating 
pigs  and  cow  sucking.  Nine  times  out  of  ten  these  bad 
habits  are  the  result  of  improper  feeding  and  poor  man- 
agement. It  is  a  difficult  matter  to  break  hogs  of  these 
habits,  and  a  much  better  way  of  handling  the  situation 
is  to  remove  the  cause,  which  means  proper  feeding  on 
grazing  crops  in  the  field. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
SWINE  DISEASES  AND  THEIR  CONTROL 

Indications  of  disease. — One  of  the  essentials  to  suc- 
cess in  any  system  of  swine  industry  must  of  necessity 
consist  in  the  ability  to  detect  and  control  swine  diseases. 


Sunlight  and  dip  are  used  to  prevent  disease  on  the  farm  of 
W.  W.  Shay,  Cruso,  N.  C. 

There  are  so  many  ailments  to  which  swine  are  subject 
and  in  which  the  mortality  is  high  that  it  becomes  im- 
portant that  we  be  able  not  only  to  recognize  disease 
when  it  occurs,  but  we  should  know  the  causes  of  disease 
in  order  that  we  may  more  successfully  prevent  them. 

174 


SWINE   DISEASES  AND  THEIR   CONTROL  175 

Likewise,  we  should  know  the  recognized  methods  of 
treatment  for  the  more  common  diseases.  It  is  an  art 
to  be  able  to  detect  disease  in  its  primary  stage  so  that 
it  can  be  properly  handled  to  prevent  spread  and  properly 
treated  to  effect  a  cure  where  possible.  We  must,  there- 
fore, know  what  the  healthy  condition  of  the  hog  is  and 
know  what  conditions  are  indicative  of  lack  of  health. 

In  many  diseases  the  first  place  where  its  effect  will 
be  noticed  is  in  the  temperament  or  disposition  of  the 
affected  animals.  They  may  be  sluggish  and  dull,  refuse 
to  eat,  and  show  other  indications  of  lack  of  health.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  some  diseases  the  nervous  system  may 
be  so  affected  that  they  become  excitable  to  the  extent 
of  delirium.  Staggering  gait,  convulsions,  paralysis  and 
twisting  of  the  head  to  one  side  and  walking  in  a  circle 
are  conditions  of  disposition  and  temperament  sugges- 
tive of  diseased  condition. 

Another  valuable  guide  to  the  health  condition  of  swine  is 
the  condition  of  the  hair  or  bristles.  While  the  hog  has 
coarse  bristles  that  are  comparatively  thinly  distributed 
over  his  body,  their  general  appearance  is  one  of  the  best 
indications  we  have  of  a  hog's  general  condition  or  thrift. 
When  a  hog  is  improperly  nourished'or  is  suffering  from 
disease,  one  of  the  first  places  it  shows  up  is  in  the  hair 
coat.  So  long  as  the  hair  is  bright  and  glossy,  and  lies 
down  smoothly,  giving  the  whole  body  a  slick  appear- 
ance, we  look  upon  the  hog  as  doing  well  and  in  a  thrifty 
condition.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  hair  is  dull  and 
stands  on  end  and  is  inclined  to  curl  up  we  say  he  is  not 
normal  and  is  unthrifty  or  diseased  in  some  way.  This 
unthriftiness  may  be  due  to  lack  of  sufficient  food  or  feed 
of  the  right  sort,  or  it  may  be  due  to  parasites  or  to  other 


176  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

pathological  conditions.  All  of  our  hogs  should  be  care- 
fully watched,  and  when  they  show  an  unhealthy  condi- 
tion of  hair  coat  the  condition  should  be  corrected  as  soon 
as  possible. 

In  addition  to  the  hair  the  condition  of  the  hide  is  also 
an  excellent  indicator  of  the  health  condition  of  the  hog. 
The  hide  or  skin  follows  the  hair  coat  in  condition  to  a 
large  extent.  In  health  it  is  soft  and  mellow.  An  in- 
elastic, hard,  rigid,  scaly  skin  is  indicative  of  an  un- 
healthy condition. 

In  diseased  conditions  we  also  find  variations  from  the 
normal  in  the  body  temperature,  pulse  rate  and  respira- 
tion, or  the  rate  of  breathing.  The  normal  temperature 
of  a  pig  varies  from  101  to  105  degrees  with  an  average 
of  about  103  degrees.  The  temperature  is  changed  from 
the  normal  by  several  conditions,  even  in  health.  The 
normal  pulse  rate  of  the  pig  is  from  70  to  80,  and  the 
respiration  rate  is  10  to  20  normally,  but  with  excite- 
ment or  heat  it  may  reach  50  or  60.  The  pulse,  respira- 
tion and  temperature  are  all  increased  by  excitement  and 
heat,  and  lowered  by  cold  and  rest.  Other  indications 
of  a  diseased  condition  are  to  be  found  in  the  appearance 
of  the  exposed  mucous  membranes  and  in  the  condition 
and  quantity  of  the  excretions  and  secretions.  The  ap- 
plication of  these  to  the  detection  of  disease  requires  a 
little  more  skill  than  the  previously  mentioned  indicators, 
and  use  can  be  made  of  them  only  by  those  that  are  more 
or  less  skilled. 

Administering  medicines. — The  expert  herdsman  will 
become  more  or  less  experienced  in  the  administration 
of  medicines.  Under  the  majority  of  circumstances  the 
medicine  will  be  administered  in  one  of  four  ways.  First 


SWINE   DISEASES   AND   THEIR    CONTROL  177 

of  all  is  the  administration  by  way  of  the  mouth,  next 
is  by  injection  beneath  the  skin,  the  third  is  by  direct 
application  to  the  affected  parts,  and  the  fourth  is  by 
way  of  the  rectum.  There  are  other  ways  in  whch  medi- 
cines may  be  administered,  but  they  are  seldom  resorted 
to.  In  administration  by  way  of  the  mouth  the  medicine 
may  be  given  in  the  food  in  most  cases,  or  else  it  may 
be  given  as  a  drench,  if  proper  care  is  taken.  In  drench- 
ing a  pig  the  important  consideration  is  not  to  pour  the 
medicine  in  the  pig's  mouth  while  he  is  excited  and 
squealing,  but  to  wait  until  it  becomes  quiet.  Injections 
under  the  skin  are  sometimes  made  use  of  where  the 
drugs  are  not  too  irritant.  The  administration  of  medi- 
cine by  way  of  the  rectum  is  rarely  made  use  of.  Where 
the  dosage  is  to  be  given  to  a  number  of  hogs  care  must 
be  exercised  to  get  an  even  distribution  to  prevent  over- 
dosage  and  to  get  a  sufficient  dosage  all  the  way  round. 

Veterinarians. — There  are  a  few  troubles  that  occur 
in  the  swine  herd  that  can  be  treated  by  the  herdsman 
without  the  aid  of  a  veterinarian.  There  are  many  times, 
however,  that  the  services  of  a  veterinarian  should  be  had 
when  they  are  not.  By  all  means  when  a  condition  oc- 
curs quite  general  over  the  herd  a  veterinarian  should  be 
called  if  there  is  the  least  doubt  as  to  the  disease  and  its 
condition.  Even  when  the  trouble  is  not  general  in  the 
herd,  but  is  not  understood  and  the  disease  is  doubtful, 
it  will  pay  in  most  cases  to  consult  a  veterinarian.  The 
fact  should  be  impressed  upon  the  grower  of  swine  that 
practically  all  diseases  of  swine  are  amenable  to  treat- 
ment and  control  through  the  application  of  scientific 
knowledge,  and  above  all  a  licensed  or  graduate  veteri- 
narian should  be  called  in,  and  not  a  quack  who 


178  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTIOX 

can  do  little  but  harm  in  spite  of  his  probably  false 
reputation.  • 

Swine  diseases. — In  a  general  way  the  diseases  of 
swine  may  be  divided  into  three  main  groups.  The  first 
of  these  is  the  result  of  an  infection  of  some  sort  and  may 
be  either  infectious  or  contagious,  depending  upon  the 
method  of  transmission  from  one  animal  to  another.  In 
addition  to  diseases  due  to  microscopic  organisms  there 
are  certain  other  diseases  due  to  macroscopical  organisms. 
Such  diseases  as  these  are  conveniently  classified  as  para- 
sitical diseases.  There  are  also  a  number  of  diseases  that 
can  be  classified  as  surgical,  since  surgery  is  involved  in 
their  treatment.  As  a  good  example  of  surgical  diseases, 
we  might  refer  to  hernia  or  rupture.  In  addition  to  this 
classification,  diseases  are  frequently  classified  into 
groups  according  to  the  organs,  parts,  or  systems 
affected.  Among  these  groups  we  find  diseases  of  the 
circulatory  system,  digestive  system,  excretory  system, 
locomotor  system,  nervous  system,  reproductive  system, 
respiratory  system  and  diseases  of  the  skin. 

Circulatory  system. — The  circulatory  system  involves 
the  heart  and  the  blood  vessels  carrying  blood  to  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  body  and  returning  it  to  the  heart. 
Diseases  affecting  the  circulatory  system  are  generally 
the  indirect  result  of  unhealthful  conditions  in  other  parts 
of  the  body,  and  this  becomes  one  of  the  first  systems 
affected  in  general  disease.  Aside  from  the  matter  of 
pulse  rate  and  strength  and  other  minor  diseases  of  the 
system,  there  are  two  diseases  affecting  this  system  that 
are  not  uncommon  in  the  swine  herd.  The  first  of  these 
is  septicaemia  or  blood  poisoning,  and  the  other  is  fatty 


SWIXE  DISEASES  AND  THEI*   CONTROL  179 

degeneration  of  the  hearL  Such  diseases  as  pleurisy,  hog 
cholera,  pneumonia  and  rheumatism  may  give  rise  to 

inflammation  of  the  tissues  around  the  heart.  General 
blood  and  heart  diseases  are  indicated  by  high  fever, 
weak,  quick  and  irregular  pulse,  with  indications  of  pain. 
Treatment  of  diseases  of  the  circulatory  system  is  usually 
unsatisfactory  and  should  be  preventive  rather  than 
curative. 

Septicaemia  (blood  poisoning). — This  trouble  can  be 
suspected  where  an  operation  has  been  performed,  after 
a  difficult  farrowing,  or  following  a  bruise  or  injury.  In 
the  case  of  internal  abscesses  it  occurs  without  apparent 
external  S3rmptoms:  Fever,  loss  of  appetite,  muscular 
tremors,  stupidity  and  weakness  are  the  usual  symptoms. 
The  disease  is  due  to  absorption  of  the  toxic  substances 
produced  by  the  bacteria.  As  a  usual  thing  the  infection 
comes  from  an  external  wound  or  bruise,  but  in  the  case 
of  abscesses  septicaemia  may  result  from  pyogenic  bacteria 
or  abscesses  in  different  parts  of  the  body,  which  ab- 
scesses may  or  may  not  become  apparent  on  the  surface. 
The  treatment  is  preventive.  Wounds  should  be  kept  in 
such  condition  as  not  to  predispose  to  infection.  Closed 
abscesses  and  wounds  should  be  opened  and  cleansed 
and  washed  with  a  solution  of  boric  acid,  hydrogen  per- 
oxide or  other  disinfectants.  Diseased  individuals  should 
be  separated  from  the  herd  and  given  nutritious  and 
easily  digested  feeds,  and  in  some  cases  tonics  may  be 
advisable. 

Fatty  degeneration  of  the  heart. — This  disease  occurs 
not  infrequently  under  lot-feeding  conditions  where  ex- 
tensive use  is  made  of  corn-  It  is  due  to  over-feeding  with 


180  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

fat-making  feeds  without  sufficient  exercise.  The  dis- 
ease is  characterized  by  a  fatty  deposition  around  the 
heart  and  by  a  partial  replacing  of  the  muscular  tissue 
of  the  heart  with  fatty  tissue.  The  symptoms  are  a  weak, 
irregular  heart  action,  generally  accompanied  by  difficult 
breathing.  The  prevention  of  the  disease  largely  con- 
sists in  proper  feeding  with  ample  exercise. 

Digestive  system. — There  are  many  diseases  affecting 
directly  and  indirectly  the  digestive  system.  This  is  be- 
cause the  system  is  so  vitally  connected  with  every  other 
system  on  the  body.  When  the  digestive  organs  are 
diseased  all  other  parts  of  the  body  will  suffer.  The 
proper  feeding  has  more  to  do  with  the  condition  of  the 
digestive  system  than  any  other  factor,  and  under  health- 
ful feeding  conditions  organic  diseases  will  be  largely 
prevented  and  the  animal  will  be  better  able  to  ward  off 
infectious  and  contagious  diseases.  Diseased  conditions 
of  the  digestive  system  are  manifested  in  several  ways. 
The  appetite  is  invariably  affected  one  way  or  the  other. 
The  pulse,  temperature,  and  the  respiration  are  also 
affected  in  most  diseases.  Among  the  more  important 
diseases  affecting  the  digestive  system  are  indigestion  or 
gastritis,  which  occurs  in  both  the  chronic  and  acute 
forms,  gastro  enteritis,  scours,  diarrhea,  constipation,  hog 
cholera  and  thumps. 

Indigestion  (gastritis). — Cases  of  indigestion  are  quite 
common  in  the  average  herd.  Many  of  these  cases  are 
acute  and  others  chronic.  Where  acute  the  cause  is 
generally  due  to  over-feeding  or  to  irritating  feeds,  and 
indigestion  is  not  infrequent  from  the  administering  of 
quack  remedies  for  fancied  ailments.  Poor  care  in  feed- 


SWINE   DISEASES   AND  THEIR   CONTROL  181 

ing  or  management,  exposure  and  other  debilitating  in- 
fluences may  lead  to  forms  of  indigestion.  Worms  and 
insufficient  supply  of  nutritious  feeds  and  excess  of  cot- 
tonseed meal  are  common  causes  of  chronic  indigestion. 
The  presence  of  indigestion  is  indicated  by  vomiting, 
fever,  voluntary  isolation,  evidences  of  pain,  constipation, 
which  is  generally  followed  by  diarrhea,  and  in  chronic 
forms  it  is  generally  accompanied  by  a  general  unthrifty 
condition  and  slow  and  stunted  growth.  Restlessness 
and  evidences  of  abdominal  pain  are  noticeable  symptoms 
in  acute  forms  of  the  disease.  The  trouble  may  or  may 
not  result  in  the  death  of  the  animal,  depending  on  the 
cause  of  the  indigestion,  the  severity  and  treatment. 
First  the  cause  should  be  determined  and  that  removed. 
Care  must  be  taken  not  to  give  irritating  drugs.  In  acute 
cases  induced  vomiting  followed  by  a  dose  of  oil  is  ex- 
cellent treatment.  Comfortable  quarters,  a  light  but  nu- 
tritious diet  and  removal  of  the  cause  will  generally 
effect  a  cure  in  a  short  time  in  acute  cases.  About  the 
same  treatment  is  recommended  for  chronic  cases.  A 
vermifuge,  followed  by  a  physic  and  repeated  every  10 
days,  with  possibly  a  tonic  and  with  proper  regulators 
should  soon  give  relief. 

Hog  cholera. — There  is  no  greater  obstacle  to  a  more 
extensive  swine  industry  in  the  South  than  hog  cholera, 
a  very  contagious  disease,  often  sweeping  away  entire 
herds  at  a  time.  The  serious  nature  of  the  disease  makes 
it  imperative  that  we  more  thoroughly  understand  the 
disease  in  order  that  we  can  more  successfully  cope  with 
it  when  the  necessity  arises.  It  is  caused  by  a  specific 
organism  so  small  that  it  cannot  be  seen  under  the  most 
powerful  microscope,  and  it  can  be  filtered  through  the 


182  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

most  dense  filter.  These  facts  make  it  difficult  to  study 
the  organism  and  to  trace  its  transmission  from  one  place 
to  another.  Swine  only  are  susceptible,  and  the  suscepti- 
bility is  very  high,  especially  in  the  acute  form,  when 
frequently  an  entire  herd  will  become  infected  very 
quickly.  The  disease  is  also  characterized  by  a  very  high 
death  rate.  The  period  of  incubation,  or  the  time  that 
elapses  between  the  time  the  hog  is  exposed  and  the  time 
it  takes  the  disease,  is  variable.  In  some  cases  it  may  be 
two  days,  and  again  it  may  be  two  weeks,  depending  on 
the  physical  condition  of  the  hog  or  on  its  susceptibility, 
the  virulence  of  the  strain  and  the  method  in  infection. 
The  period  of  incubation  is  much  shorter  in  the  acute 
than  in  the  chronic  form. 

Among  the  symptoms  are  loss  of  appetite,  rise  in  tem- 
perature, rapid  intoxication  and  high  death  rate.  Un- 
fortunately, there  are  other  diseases  characterized  by 
similar  symptoms  and  it  is  only  possible  to  definitely 
diagnose  hog  cholera  by  post-mortem  examination.  In 
addition  to  the  ante-mortem  symptoms  we  find  a  char- 
acteristic huddling  together  in  pens  or  nests,  stiffness  of 
joints,  a  cough,  especially  in  the  chronic  form,  a  mucous 
discharge  from  the  eyes  and  nostrils  and  red  blotches  on 
the  skin,  especially  on  the  abdomen.  At  first  the  animal 
is  constipated,  but  that  is  later  followed  by  a  persistent 
diarrhea.  In  cholera,  especially  in  the  chronic  form,  we 
find  a  wide  range  of  symptoms,  which  result  largely  from 
secondary  infections  with  other  organisms.  These  sec- 
ondary infections  frequently  complicate  diagnosis.  In 
describing  the  diagnosis  of  hog  cholera  it  is  generally 
customary  to  differentiate  between  the  acute  and  chronic 
forms,  the  differentiation  being  more  or  less  arbitrary  and 


SWINE    DISEASES   AND   THEIR    CONTROL  183 

based  upon  the  rapidity  of  the  course  and  mortality  of 
the  disease. 

There  are  several  diseases  that  are  apt  to  become  con- 
fused with  hog  cholera  when  only  the  external  symptoms 
are  considered.  Among  these  parasitic  infestation  is 
commonly  confused  with  cholera  and  is  also  associated 
indirectly  with  it.  Acute  and  chronic  gastritis  or  indi- 
gestion has  somewhat  similar  symptoms.  Pneumonia 
and  swine  plague  are  other  diseases  apt  to  be  confused 
with  it.  Thus  the  post-mortem  diagnosis  is  most  reliable. 
On  post-mortem  the  cholera  hog  will  show  in  acute  cases 
characteristic  hemorrhagic  lesions.  These  occur  in 
the  skin,  in  the  serous  mucous  lining  of  the  body  cavity, 
intestines,  kidneys  and  lungs.  In  chronic  cases  the 
lesions  may  take  the  form  of  ulcerations,  occurring  in 
about  the  same  locations  as  in  the  acute  form. 

Knowing  of  the  dangers  of  hog  cholera,  one  of  the  most 
important  things  to  know  is  how  to  prevent  it.  To  do 
this  we  must  first  know  how  it  is  spread  or  introduced 
into  herds.  Above  all,  the  infected  hog  is  probably  the 
most  important  factor.  If  the  hog  is  alive,  it  should  be 
subjected  to  the  most  rigid  quarantine.  It  it  dies  the 
carcass  should  be  burned  or  buried  deeply.  Before  a  new 
hog  comes  into  a  herd  it  should  be  placed  in  quarantine 
for  at  least  four  weeks.  The  disease  can  be  controlled 
and  prevented  by  proper  sanitary  precautions  and  the 
judicious  use  of  preventive  serum.  The  methods  by 
which  the  disease  can  be  carried  from  an  infected  to  a 
healthy  herd  are  numerous.  Dogs,  pigeons,  other  ani- 
mals, men  and  farming  equipment  of  all  kinds  can  carry 
the  disease  from  an  infected  to  a  healthy  herd.  The 
buzzard  is  reputed  to  play  an  important  part  in  the  dis- 


184  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

semination  of  the  disease,  but  if  we  would  destroy  the 
carcasses  of  hogs  that  die  from  cholera  this  source  of 
possible  infection  would  cease  to  a  large  extent.  Above 
all,  a  healthy  herd  is  not  nearly  so  apt  to  become 
infected  with  cholera  as  an  unhealthy  one.  We  should, 
therefore,  keep  our  hogs  healthy  and  free  from  worms. 
If  cholera  is  in  the  immediate  community,  or  if  the  herd 
has  had  a  good  chance  for  infection,  an  experienced  per- 
son should  vaccinate  the  herd  with  serum.  Good  hog 
cholera  serum  properly  used  is  a  sure  preventive  of  hog 
cholera.  The  use  of  serum  as  a  preventive  is  to  be 
recommended  above  all  others.  Losses  from  hog  cholera 
can  be  eliminated  by  keeping  the  herd  immuned,  but  under 
ordinary  conditions  this  is  not  an  advisable  practice. 

When  a  herd  becomes  infected  quack  remedies  and 
medicines  should  be  avoided.  A  competent  veterinarian 
should  be  called  in.  If  the  disease  is  cholera,  all  healthy 
hogs  ready  for  the  market  should  be  marketed  at  once 
where  permissible  by  law.  Sick  animals  should  be  iso- 
lated at  once  from  the  herd.  Dead  hogs  should  be  burned 
and  all  rubbish  cleaned  up,  houses  and  nests  should  be 
closed  until  disinfected,  and  wallows  should  be  filled  up 
or  drained.  Quicklime  should  be  used  on  all  places 
known  to  be  infected.  If  cholera  is  present  provision 
should  be  made  at  once  to  inoculate  all  animals  in  the 
herd,  both  sick  and  well.  The  serum  is  given  to  the  well 
to  prevent  them  from  having  the  disease  and  to  the  sick 
to  effect  a  cure,  which  it  will  do  in  many  cases  where  the 
disease  is  not  too  far  advanced.  Experience  has  shown 
that  serum  has  some  curative  properties,  and  an  experi- 
enced person  can  generally  tell  when  it  is  advisable  to 
give  it  to  a  sick  hog. 


SWINE    DISEASES   AND   THEIR    CONTROL 


185 


Many  farmers  and  hog  raisers  administer  the  serum 
themselves.  There  is  no  reason  why  anyone  cannot 
apply  it  successfully  if  he  follows  the  few  simple  instruc- 
tions. All  hog  raisers  should  know  where  the  serum  is 
obtainable.  In  most  states  the  State  Veterinarian  has 
charge  of  the  sale  of  serum  and  controls  its  use.  It  is 
sold  at  so  much  per  c.c.,  which  ranges  in  price  generally 
from  -4  to  1l/2  cents  per  c.c.  Full  directions  for  the  use 


Administering  serum  to  prevent  hog  cholera.     Courtesy  R.  D. 
Goodman  of  North  Carolina. 

of  the  serum  are  also  obtainable  from  the  officer  or  in- 
stitution in  charge  of  the  sale  of  the  serum.  The  dosage 
of  serum  generally  varies  according  to  the  gross  weight 
of  the  hog.  The  following  are  the  dosages  generally 
recommended : 

25-50    pounds  10-20  c.  c. 

50-100  pounds  20-30  c.  c. 

100-200  pounds  30-45  c.  c. 

200-400  pounds  45-60  c.  c. 

Over  400  pounds 60-80  c.  c.,  according  to  weight 


186  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

For  some  time  use  has  been  made  of  the  double  treat- 
ment by  which  the  hog  is  given  an  infection  of  hog 
cholera  and  the  serum  at  the  same  time,  resulting  in  a 
more  or  less  permanent  immunity  to  the  disease.  This 
method  of  immunization  has  been  given  a  most  thorough 
trial,  and  in  most  states  is  either  now  prohibited  or  ad- 
vised against  on  account  of  the  resultant  spreading 
of  the  disease  and  effects  on  the  animal,  many  animals 
being  more  or  less  permanently  stunted  by  the  treatment. 
This  brings  up  the  question  of  the  length  of  the  immunity 
secured  by  the  inoculation  with  serum  alone.  It  has  been 
found  that  this  is  quite  variable,  dependent  to  a  large  ex- 
tent upon  the  natural  susceptibility  of  the  individual. 
In  some  cases  the  immunity  will  last  but  six  weeks,  while 
in  others  it  will  last  as  long  as  six  months.  Sows  ad- 
vanced in  pregnancy  can  safely  be  inoculated  with  the 
serum  if  proper  precautions  are  taken.  Many  preventive 
measures  and  precautions  are  also  a  matter  of  actual  ex- 
perience. When  a  herd  becomes  infected  one  must  know 
how  long  to  keep  the  herd  immuned  until  the  danger  of 
cholera  is  past.  That  will  depend  largely  on  the  rigidity 
of  the  sanitary  precautions  taken. 

Constipation. — Constipation  is  rather  a  common  dis- 
ease in  swine  herds,  especially  where  the  hogs  are  fed  on 
dry  feeds.  It  is  characterized  by  a  dry,  hard  feces  contain- 
ing but  little  moisture.  It  is  indicative  of  disease  rather 
than  a  disease  itself.  The  treatment  of  the  condition  is 
simple.  In  mild  cases  dieting  will  soon  bring  about  the 
proper  condition.  Dry  feeds  should  be  avoided  and  only 
sloppy  and  green  feeds  fed.  The  consumption  of  much 
water  is  desirable,  and  induced  exercise  assists  in  the 
recovery  to  normal  condition.  A  small  dose,  from  one 


SWINE   DISEASES  AND  THEIR   CONTROL  187 

to  two  ounces  of  castor  oil,  or  two  or  three  ounces  of 
linseed  oil,  will  often  relieve  the  constipation,  and  in 
acute  cases  calomel  at  the  rate  of  a  grain  per  25  pounds 
in  weight  should  relieve  the  condition  in  a  short  while. 
Under  the  methods  of  swine  growing  which  we  should 
adopt  in  which  grazing  crops  play  an  important  role, 
trouble  from  this  source  becomes  almost  negligible. 

Diarrhea. — Diarrhea  is  a  common  symptom  of  many 
diseases  affecting  the  digestive  tract.  In  most  cases  it 
is  due  directly  to  an  irritation,  which  may  be  brought 
about  by  poisons,  or,  as  is  more  often  the  case,  it  may 
be  due  to  a  bacterial  infection.  In  the  case  of  young  pigs 
it  may  assume  the  form  of  scours,  and  the  discharge  may 
be  a  grayish  liquid,  with  an  offensive  odor.  This  form 
of  scours  is  generally  fatal  in  quite  young  pigs,  but 
diarrhea  can  generally  be  controlled  in  older  pigs  and 
hogs.  The  disease  is  characterized  by  a  gradual  loss  of 
appetite,  sometimes  by  fever,  and  indisposition  to  ex- 
ercise, indications  of  pain  and,  above  all,  by  the  watery 
nature  of  the  fecal  discharge.  Diarrhea  may  result  from 
irritations  due  to  intestinal  worms.  Indigestion,  bacterial 
infection  from  putrid  feeds,  change  from  dry  to  green 
feeds  and  improper  protection  from  the  cold  are  other 
causes  of  diarrhea.  The  treatment  consists  in  the  re- 
moval of  the  cause.  If  the  cause  is  another  disease,  the 
other  disease  should  be  treated.  Light  diet,  purgatives 
of  castor  oil,  nitrate  of  bismuth,  opiates,  formaldehyde 
and  slaked  lime  may  be  indicated.  Especially  is  the  lime 
good  where  the  cause  is  an  acid  irritation. 

Thumps — spasm  of  the  diaphragm. — This  is  quite  a 
common  occurrence  in  pigs,  and  is  the  result  of  an  irrita- 


188  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

tion  of  the  phrenic  nerves.  Indigestion,  especially  over- 
loading of  the  stomach,  intestinal  parasites  and  lack  of 
adequate  exercise  are  some  of  the  more  common  causes 
of  the  condition.  The  symptoms  are  marked.  When 
standing  the  body  will  move  forward  with  the  shock  of 
the  contraction.  When  lying  down  the  force  of  the 
spasm  can  plainly  be  seen  on  the  side  of  the  animal.  The 
spasms  occur  with  considerable  regularity,  but  the  con- 
tractions occur  more  often  when  the  stomach  is  full. 
The  treatment  consists,  first,  in  the  removal  of  the  cause. 
A  vermifuge  of  turpentine,  a  half  teaspoonful  per  80- 
pound  pig,  followed  by  a  dose  of  calomel,  should  be  given. 
Exercise  on  pasture  is  beneficial,  and  the  bowels  should 
be  regulated  with  laxatives  and  tonics.  Tincture  of 
opium  is  generally  recommended  to  stop  the  contractions 
of  the  diaphragm. 

Excretory  system. — The  diseases  of  the  kidneys  and 
bladder  are  confined  for  the  most  part  to  inflammations. 
Congestions  of  the  kidneys  from  an  injury  or  from  a 
poison  are  not  uncommon  in  swine.  Exposure  is  a  cause 
of  kidney  and  bladder  trouble  and  the  excretory  organs 
are  quite  commonly  affected  by  such  diseases  as  swine 
plague  and  hog  cholera.  Germs  may  infect  both  the 
kidneys  and  bladder  and  give  rise  to  irritations  and 
inflammations.  When  the  urine  is  retained  for  any  length 
of  time  the  fermentations  release  free  ammonia,  which 
irritates  the  mucous  membranes  with  which  it  comes  in 
contact.  The  symptoms  of  diseases  of  the  excretory 
system  are  generally  obscure.  The  appetite  may  be  ir- 
regular, indications  of  pain  may  be  manifested,  the  urine 
may  be  passed  frequently  in  varying  quantities,  and  it 
may  be  of  high  color.  In  some  cases  there  is  a  retention 


SWINE   DISEASES   AND   THEIR    CONTROL  189 

of  the  urine.  When  the  disease  is  advanced  more  general 
symptoms  may  become  manifested,  and  death  may  result 
from  uremic  poisoning.  The  bowels  must  be  kept  open 
and  frequent  laxatives  should  be  given.  Home  treatment 
in  cases  of  diseases  affecting  the  excretory  system  are 
generally  not  very  satisfactory,  and  in  most  cases  the 
treatment  should  be  given  under  the  direction  of  a  com- 
petent veterinarian. 

Diseases  of  the  locomotor  organs. — Diseases  affecting 
the  organs  of  locomotion  may  be  either  due  to  physio- 
logical or  morphological  conditions.  Nearly  all  diseases 
of  locomotion  manifest  themselves  by  lameness.  Thus 
when  lameness  occurs  we  should  at  once  ascertain  the 
location  of  the  trouble  and  proceed  to  remove  the  cause. 
The  more  common  causes  of  lameness  are  rheumatism, 
sore  feet,  stiff  joints  and  weak  legs. 

Rickets  is  a  rather  common  disease,  affecting  the  bones 
of  the  legs  in  particular.  It  is  due  to  an  insufficiency  of 
mineral  matter  in  the  diet,  and  is  generally  easily  cor- 
rected by  the  addition  to  the  diet  of  such  minerals  as 
lime,  phosphates  and  carbonates.  Lack  of  exercise, 
crowded  quarters,  filth  and  poor  feeding  are  common 
contributive  causes.  The  disease  may  assume  the  form 
of  a  crumbling  or  fracturing  of  the  bone  without  due 
cause,  or  it  may  assume  the  form  of  distortion  in  the 
extremities. 

Lameness  from  rheumatism  may  result  from  articular 
and  muscular  rheumatism.  Frequently  we  find  muscular 
rheumatism  resulting  as  secondary  to  another  disease. 
Overfeeding  and  exposure  are  two  causes  to  which  rheu- 
matism is  generally  attributed,  but  it  may  come  from 
other  sources,  especially  from  diseases  affecting  the  ex- 


190  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

cretory  system.  In  the  articular  form  there  may  be  a 
swelling  and  stiffness  of  the  joints.  In  the  muscular 
form  the  muscles  of  the  back  are  more  commonly 
affected.  The  treatment  is  not  very  satisfactory.  Com- 
fortable quarters,  a  laxative  diet  and  regular  and  judi- 
cious feeding  are  valuable. 

Sore  feet  is  due  generally  to  an  infection  of  the  soft 
parts  between  the  toes.  If  the  disease  is  the  result  of 
confinement  on  hard  pasture,  the  hogs  should  be  placed 
on  softer  ground.  In  addition  to  removing  the  cause  of 
the  infection  we  should  take  means  to  destroy  it.  To 
do  this  the  feet  should  be  washed  once  a  day  in  a  5  per 
cent  solution  of  a  coal  tar  dip.  Another  good  remedy  is 
to  wash  the  feet  daily  in  a  saturated  solution  of  copper 
sulphate.  Above  all,  the  animals  affected  should  be  kept 
out  of  the  mud,  mire  and  manure. 

Diseases  of  the  nervous  system. — There  are  several 
causes  that  will  give  rise  to  an  inflammation  or  conges- 
tion of  the  brain,  with  its  resultant  effects  of  paralysis, 
epilepsy,  apoplexy,  blindness  and  deafness.  Among  these 
are  over-heating,  tumors  or  parasites,  injuries,  improper 
feeding,  filth  and  exposure  and  infectious  diseases. 

Apoplexy  and  paralysis  are  usually  associated  with 
inactivity.  In  the  case  of  the  former  the  condition  is 
usually  sudden  and  general,  while  in  the  case  of  paralysis 
the  disease  may  be  restricted  to  certain  parts,  and  it  may 
come  on  more  slowly.  A  sunstroke  is  an  apoplectic  con- 
dition. In  these  diseases  the  cause  should  first  be  re- 
moved and  the  treatment  applied  according  to  the  cause. 
In' some  instances  recovery  can  be  effected,  but  the  best 
treatment  is  prevention,  and  the  hog  should  not  be  placed 
under  those  conditions  predisposing  it  to  these  diseases. 


SWINE   DISEASES   AND   THEIR   CONTROL  191 

Epilepsy  is  characterized  by  periodic  convulsions,  be- 
tween which  the  animal  may  appear  normal  or  only 
slightly  stupid.  The  tendency  may  be  congenital,  or  it 
may  result  from  an  injury.  In  young  pigs  it  may  result 
from  an  irritation  due  to  parasitic  infection  or  from  the 
cutting  of  teeth.  Here  again  treatment  consists  in  re- 
moval of  the  cause  where  it  is  known.  Cathartics  should 
be  given.  Cold  water  applied  to  the  head  of  the  animal 
may  give  temporary  relief. 

Blind  staggers  is  a  symptom  rather  than  a  disease. 
Treatment  is  unsatisfactory,  and  unless  the  cause  is 
known  and  can  be  removed  it  is  generally  better  to  kill 
the  afflicted  animal. 

Diseases  of  the  male  reproductive  organs. — While 
there  are  a  few  diseases  of  the  reproductive  organs  or 
system  of  swine  that  occur  frequently  in  the  breeding 
herd,  they  are  not  nearly  of  the  same  importance  as  some 
other  diseases.  In  the  boar  we  find  that  there  are  several 
contributive  causes  to  sterility,  among  the  more  im- 
portant being  too  high  condition  with  insufficient  exer- 
cise, too  much  service  and  improper  feeding.  Sterility 
may  result  from  an  injury  and  may  not  be  amenable  to 
treatment,  but  many  cases  of  sterility  can  be  remedied 
by  the  removal  of  the  cause.  Medicines  other  than 
tonics  are  of  little  or  no  value. 

Among  boars  orchitis  is  not  uncommon.  This  con- 
sists in  the  inflammation  of  one  or  both  testes.  It  is 
generally  the  result  of  an  injury  or  an  infection.  If  the 
infection  results  in  an  abscess,  removal  of  the  diseased 
testicle  is  the  quickest  remedy.  Medicinal  treatment  is 
of  some  value.  Potassium  iodide  administered  in  doses 
twice  daily  for  a  week  or  10  days  may  bring  relief.  Laxa- 


192  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

tives  and  light  feeding,  with  local  applications  of  iodine 
tincture  or  mild  blisters,  will  assist  in  rapid  recovery. 
Another  disease  in  boars  is  that  of  foul  sheath,  in  which 
an  inflammation  is  set  up  in  the  sheath  as  a  result  of  an 
accumulation  of  dirt.  The  prepuce  will  swell  and  some 
discharge  may  be  noticed.  Some  local  fever,  painful 
urination,  retention  of  the  urine  and  bad  odor  may  be 
found.  The  remedy  is  to  place  the  hog  on  his  back,  wash 
out  the  prepuce  thoroughly  with  warm  water,  making 
an  incision  if  necessary,  and  keeping  it  free  from  infec- 
tion by  washing  daily  with  a  disinfecting  solution. 

Diseases  of  the  female  reproductive  system. — Barren- 
ness in  the  sow  is  due  largely  to  the  same  causes  that 
bring  about  sterility  in  the  male,  and  the  treatment  con- 
sists largely  in  removing  the  cause.  High  condition  is 
perhaps  the  most  common  cause  of  barrenness  in  the 
sow.  Closing  of  the  os  or  entrance  to  the  uterus,  inflam- 
mation with  an  acid  discharge,  old  age,  and  morphological 
conditions  may  result  in  barrenness.  When  a  case  shows 
up,  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  provide  for  ample  exercise, 
a  reduction  in  condition  if  necessary,  and  if  the  periods 
do  not  occur  the  sow  should  be  placed  in  the  lot  with 
the  boar.  If  the  sow  comes  into  heat,  but  does  not  con- 
ceive, the  trouble  may  be  local.  If  an  inflammation  is 
present,  it  will  have  to  be  treated  with  disinfecting  solu- 
tions until  stopped  and,  if  the  uterus  is  closed,  it  may 
in  most  instances  be  opened.  Most  barrenness  is  due  to 
improper  feeding  and  management. 

Abortions  may  occur  in  sows  from  injuries  or  from 
infections.  Crowding,  exposure,  over-heating,  excite- 
ment, spoiled  feeds  and  disease  in  general  must  be 
avoided  with  pregnant  sows.  Nothing  can  be  done  to 


SWINE   DISEASES  AND  THEIR   CONTROL  193 

prevent  an  abortion  after  it  once  starts,  so  that  the  only 
cure  is  prevention.  The  after  treatment  will  depend  on 
circumstances. 

Mammitis  or  garget  results  as  an  inflammation  of  the 
udder  due  to  an  over-supply  of  milk.  Heavy  milk  supply, 
loss  of  all  or  a  part  of  the  litter,  obstruction  of  a  teat,  in- 
juries and  infections  may  be  causative  factors.  Equal 
parts  of  belladonna  and  gum  camphor  mixed  with  two 
parts  of  vaseline  make  an  excellent  ointment  for  such 
cases.  Bathing  with  hot  water  is  of  value  and  with- 
drawal of  the  milk  and  massaging  of  the  udder  will  as- 
sist in  overcoming  the  inflammation. 

Diseases  of  the  respiratory  system. — Nasal  catarrh  is 
a  rather  common  disease  of  swine  that  corresponds  with 
a  cold  in  the  head  in  people.  The  symptoms  and  treat- 
ment are  similar.  Over-heating,  chilling  and  irritations 
are  common  causes.  The  inflammation  and  infection  may 
extend  to  the  pharynx  and  larynx,  causing  the  disease 
technically  known  as  pharyngo-laryngitis.  The  bowels 
should  be  kept  open  and  health  conditions  carefully 
looked  after.  The  same  conditions  that  cause  nasal 
catarrh  and  pharyngo-laryngitis  may  lead  to  bronchitis 
or  inflammation  of  the  bronchial  tubes,  which  disease  is 
nearly  always  accompanied  by  an  infection.  Here  again 
prevention  is  the  best  and  most  satisfactory  treatment. 
Comfortable  quarters,  light  diet  and  general  good  care 
are  usually  a  more  effective  treatment  than  medicines. 

Neglected  bronchitis  frequently  terminates  in  pneu- 
monia. Fat  hogs  are  more  subject  to  this  disease  than 
thinner  ones,  and  the  chances  of  recovery  are  greater  in 
thin  ones.  The  general  symptoms  are  fairly  character- 
istic— fever,  loss  of  appetite,  depressed  spirits,  coughing, 


194  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

exhaustion  and  inflammation  of  the  visible  mucous  mem- 
branes. Preventive  measures  are  very  important.  Care- 
ful nursing,  comfortable  quarters  and  light  diet  are  about 
as  valuable  as  medicines.  Counter  irritants,  stimulants 
and  tonics  may  be  used  to  advantage  in  the  convalescent 
period.  The  bowels  should  be  kept  open  at  all  times. 
Pneumonia  is  generally  associated  with  pleurisy,  an  in- 
flammation of  the  serous  membrane  lining  the  chest 
cavity.  The  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment  are  similar 
to  those  for  pneumonia. 

Another  disease  of  swine  affecting  primarily  the  res- 
piratory organs,  but  often  extending  to  other  parts,  such 
as  the  intestines,  brain  and  lymph  glands,  is  tuberculosis. 

It  is  not  very  common  in  the  South,  but  is  probably 
becoming  more  prevalent.  The  common  source  of  in- 
fection in  swine  is  from  cattle  by  way  of  the  skim  milk, 
manure,  or  through  the  eating  of  offal  from  slaughtered 
tubercular  cattle.  Pulmonary  tuberculosis  is  accom- 
panied by  symptoms  similar  to  those  manifested  in  cases 
of  chronic  bronchitis.  Methods  of  possible  infection  and 
predisposing  causes  should  be  removed,  and  all  suspected 
animals  and  those  known  to  have  the  disease  should  be 
isolated  or  destroyed. 

Swine  plague  is  another  disease  of  swine  affecting  the 
respiratory  system.  It  is  often  confused  with  both  hog 
cholera  and  pneumonia.  It  occurs  in  both  chronic  and 
acute  forms.  The  preventive  treatment  is  about  the  same 
as  that  employed  in  hog  cholera  and  pneumonia.  This 
disease  does  not  occur  often  in  the  southern  states. 

Canker  or  sore  mouth  (necrotic  stomatitis). — This 
infectious  disease  is  fairly  common  and  frequently  oc- 
curs in  light  form,  when  the  animal  may  recover  without 


SWINE   DISEASES   AND   THEIR    CONTROL  195 

the  knowledge  of  the  herdsman.  It  affects  the  mouth 
and  adjacent  parts  and  may  extend  to  the  nostrils,  and 
even  to  the  stomach  and  intestines  in  severe  cases.  It 
is  caused  by  a  specific  micro-organism  (bacillus  nc- 
crophorus).  Congestion  of  the  lips  and  gums,  salivaton 
and  the  occurrence  of  necrotic  patches  in  the  later  stages 
are  primary  symptoms.  A  foul  odor  is  often  present. 
Diarrhea,  prostration  and  emaciation  occur  in  advanced 
stages,  followed  by  death  in  from  two  to  six  weeks. 
Where  it  occurs  the  infected  animals  should  be  isolated 
and  their  mouths  or  heads  dipped  daily  in  a  2  per  cent 
solution  of  creolin  or  good  coal  tar  dip. 

Urticaria  or  nettle  rash. — Concurrent  with  the  above- 
described  disease  there  frequently  occurs  a  general  herd 
infection  of  urticaria  or  nettle  rash.  This  disease  arises 
from  skin  irritations  resulting  from  various  causes,  and 
is  characterized  by  skin  eruptions  on  various  parts  of  the 
body,  especially  on  the  inside  of  the  thighs,  the  belly, 
between  the  forearms  and  back  of  the  ears.  Cleanliness, 
sanitation,  disinfection  and  prevention  of  skin  irritations 
are  the  best  methods  of  prevention.  Non-irritating  dips, 
such  as  five  gallons  of  water  to  which  has  been  added 
six  ounces  of  cresylic  acid  compound,  U.  S.  P.,  or  a  two  per 
cent  solution  of  a  good  coal  tar  disinfectant  should  be  used. 

Eczema. — Conditions  under  which  some  hogs  are  kept 
render  them  susceptible  to  a  chronic  skin  disease  char- 
acterized by  inflammation  and  tenderness,  followed  by 
watery  vesicles  or  blisters,  which  change  to  pustules. 
The  disease  can  easily  be  prevented  by  sanitation,  disin- 
fection and  proper  use  of  sanitary  hog  wallows  contain- 
ing a  weak  solution  of  coal  tar  dip. 


196  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

Sun  scald. — A  disease  similar  to  the  above  occurs  to 
some  extent  in  the  South  known  as  sun  scald.  About  the 
only  difference  between  sun  scald  and  pitch  mange  or 
eczema  is  in  the  cause.  White  hogs  seem  much  predisposed 
to  the  disease.  The  symptoms  are  about  the  same  as 
given  for  eczema  except  that  parts  exposed  to  the  sun 
are  more  often  affected.  Shade  and  general  good  care 
in  sanitation  and  disinfection  are  the  main  precautions 
necessary  to  successfully  control  the  trouble. 

Parasitic  diseases  of  swine. — In  addition  to  those  dis- 
eases of  swine  caused  by  bacteria  and  morphological  con- 
ditions, we  have  those  caused  by  worms  and  lice.  Fully 
90  per  cent  of  losses  in  swine  are  associated  with 
parasitic  infection.  Roughly,  the  parasitic  diseases  of 
swine  may  be  classified  into  those  caused  by  worms  and 
those  caused  by  lice  and  mites. 

Worms. — Among  the  diseases  of  swine  caused  by 
worms  those  affecting  the  alimentary  tract  are  more 
numerous  and  important.  The  large  thorn-head  worms 
are  found  wherever  the  secondary  host,  May  beetles,  are 
found.  The  males  are  from  2  to  4  inches  in  length,  and 
the  females  may  attain  a  length  of  12  inches.  As  a  rule 
the  worm  is  round,  and  the  anterior  end  bears  a  number 
of  recurved  booklets,  to  serve  as  an  attachment  to  the 
wall  of  the  intestines.  The  attachment  may  give  rise  to 
irritation  and  possible  rupture,  resulting  in  peritonitis 
and  death. 

Another  very  important  worm  affecting  the  alimentary 
tract  is  the  large,  round  worm,  known  as  Ascaris  Stds. 
The  females  often  attain  a  length  of  12  inches.  The  worm 
is  white,  tapering  off  to  a  point  at  each  end,  segmented, 


SWINE   DISEASES   AND   THEIR    CONTROL  197 

and  the  eggs  are  laid  and  passed  out  to  be  reconsumed 
without  an  intermediate  host.  The  distribution  of  this 
worm  is  most  extensive,  and  but  few  herds  are  entirely 
free.  They  mostly  inhabit  the  small  intestines,  but  fre- 
quently penetrate  the  gall  duct,  and  even  enter  the  liver. 
A  few  worms  do  not  cause  serious  results.  When  pres- 
ent in  quantity,  they  cause  indigestion,  liver  diseases, 
progressive  emaciation  and  occasionally  convulsions. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  troublesome  worms  affecting 
swine  and  must  be  provided  against  if  serious  damage 
is  to  be  avoided. 

The  pin  worm  is  a  small  white  worm  more  commonly 
inhabiting  the  large  intestines.  It  is  shaped  similar  to 
the  Ascaris,  is  white  or  grayish  in  color  and  about  a 
half  inch  in  length.  These  worms  never  do  serious  dam- 
age unless  present  in  extremely  large  quantities,  when 
intestinal  indigestion  may  result. 

Another  less  important  intestinal  worm  is  the  whip 
worm.  They  attach  themselves  to  the  wall  of  the  intes- 
tines and  may  give  rise  to  irritations  in  this  way. 

Trichinosis. — This  small  round  worm  has  the  adult 
stage  in  the  intestinal  tract  and  the  larval  stages  in  the 
muscular  tissues.  It  is  supposed  that  the  hogs  become 
infected  by  eating  rats  and  slaughter-house  offal  con- 
taining the  cysts  of  the  worm,  growth  to  maturity  taking 
place  in  the  intestines.  Copulation  and  reproduction  take 
place  to  liberate  numerous  embryos  which  penetrate  the 
intestines  and  migrate  to  the  various  tissues.  This  dis- 
ease is  communicable  to  man,  and  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  eat  infected  pork.  The  medical  measures  are 
about  the  same  as  those  recommended  for  other  intestinal 
worms,  but  the  preventive  measures  must  be  from  a 


198  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

special   angle  owing  to  the  methods  necessary  for  in- 
fection. 

Treatment  for  intestinal  worms. — Preventive  treatment 
is  to  be  used  in  preference  to  medicinal,  although  the  lat- 
ter must  be  resorted  to  at  times.  It  is  very  important  to 
keep  the  hogs  healthy  and  in  a  thrifty,  growing  condition. 
General  sanitary  and  precautionary  measures  must  be 
used  in  preventing  infection  and  spread  of  these  parasites. 
When  an  infection  occurs  medicines  have  to  be  resorted 
to.  Many  vermifuges  and  vermicides  have  been  recom- 
mended. Turpentine,  santonin,  calomel  and  areca  nut 
are  all  excellent  for  use  with  swine.  Doses  of  a  teaspoon- 
ful  of  turpentine,  eight  grains  of  santonin,  five  grains  of 
calomel,  or  three  drachms  of  areca  nut  are  common 
doses.  These  should  be  followed  by  a  physic  of  castor 
oil  and  repeated  in  two  or  three  weeks  if  necessary.  In 
addition  to  the  above  it  is  always  well  to  keep  before  the 
hogs  a  worm  preventive  mixture  such  as  recommended 
on  page  146. 

Lung  worms. — The  lung  worms  are  present  in  most 
localities  and  are  described  by  Craig  as  the  most  common 
parasite  of  swine.  When  conditions  are  favorable  for  its 
development,  they  may  become  present  in  such  large 
numbers  as  to  lead  to  bronchitis,  pneumonia  and  other 
lung  diseases.  The  lung  worm  is  about  the  size  of  a 
thread  and  ranges  up  to  nearly  2  inches  in  length.  The 
chief  source  of  infection  seems  to  be  by  the  breathing  of 
dusty  air  bearing  the  eggs  or  encystments.  The  method 
of  prevention  and  treatment  is  summed  up  in  sanitation, 
proper  feeding  and  proper  management. 


SWINE   DISEASES  AND  THEIR   CONTROL  199 

Kidney  worms. — This  worm  infests  the  kidneys  and 
the  fat  surrounding  them.  Dr.  Carey  states  that  from 
90  to  95  per  cent  of  all  hogs  over  one  year  of  age  in  the 
South  are  affected  with  this  worm.  No  satisfactory  treat- 
ment is  known,  and  preventive  measures,  such  as  recom- 
mended for  other  worms,  should  be  used  to  keep  the  dis- 
ease in  check. 

The  hog  louse. — This  common  external  bloodrsucking 
parasite  is  the  largest  louse  known.  It  is  the  most  com- 
mon external  parasite  of  swine.  It  affects  unthrifty  swine 
more  often  than  the  thrifty  ones.  The  female  cements 
the  ova  or  nits  to  the  bristles.  These  hatch  in  from  10 
to  14  days.  These  lice  suck  the  blood,  irritate  the  skin 
in  puncturing  it,  and  it  is  possible  that  they  may  trans- 
mit infectious  diseases. 

Another  parasite  which  burrows  in  the  skin  is  the  one 
that  causes  mange,  of  which  there  are  two  or  more  kinds. 
The  most  common  is  the  sarcoptic  mange.  The  adults 
are  scarcely  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  The  rapidity  with 
which  these  parasites  can  multiply  is  almost  beyond  con- 
ception. The  disease  may  become  serious  if  not  properly 
treated,  resulting  in  loss  of  hair,  thickening  of  the  skin, 
cracking  of  the  skin  and  soreness.  The  treatment  of  this 
disease  consists  in  the  application  of  oils  and  sulphur. 
Another  form  of  mange  known  as  the  demodectic  or  red 
mange  occurs  rarely  and  is  incurable. 

Treatment  for  external  parasites  should  be  both  pre- 
ventive and  curative.  The  dipping  vat  is  the  most  valu- 
able remedy.  Dipping  once  every  10  days  for  three  dip- 
pings, or  longer  if  necessary,  and  each  month  thereafter, 
with  a  good  coal  tar  or  lime  sulphur  dip  should  soon  con- 
trol these  parasites.  In  order  to  make  the  work  effective 


200  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

it  must  be  accompanied  by  adequate  sanitary  and  dis- 
infecting measures.  Thorough  rubbing  with  machine  or 
other  oils  will  often  effect  a  cure. 

Surgical   diseases. — The   expert   herdsman    should  be 
able  to  perform  the  minor  and  simple  surgical  operations 


Cement  wallowing  hole  used  to  control  lice  on  Broadacre  Farms, 
Bonifay,  Fla. 

necessary  in  the  routine  care  of  the  herd  and  be  able  to 
understand  and  appreciate  the  procedure  where  more 
skill  is  required.  He  should  understand  the  necessity 
for  asepsis  and  the  conditions  favoring  infection.  Above 
all,  the  herdsman  should  be  able  to  perform  such  simple 
operations  as  castration,  treatment  of  some  cases  of 
hernia,  abscesses,  cuts  and  bruises. 

Castration. — This  is  a  very  simple  operation  that  is 
performed  by  many  who  do  not  take  the  pains  and  pre- 
cautions with  it  they  should.  If  properly  done,  there  is 
practically  no  danger  from  complications,  but  as  usually 


SWINE   DISEASES  AND  THEIR   CONTROL  201 

done  abscesses,  tumors,  hernia,  peritonitis  and  the  like 
frequently  result.  The  most  favorable  age  for  the  opera- 
tion is  just  before  weaning  time,  when  the  setback  caused 
by  the  operation  will  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Castra- 
tion can,  however,  be  done  successfully  at  any  age.  In 
the  operation  sanitary  precautions  are  important.  Hot 
and  wet  weather  should  be  avoided.  Filthy  pens,  wal- 
lows and  other  sources  of  infection  should  be  eliminated. 
A  good  plan  is  to  cut  out  feed  for  12  hours  before  the 
operation.  Confine  the  pigs  to  a  small  pen  and  catch  one 
at  a  time  without  excitement  or  heating  them  up.  The 
one  that  is  to  perform  the  operation  should  see  to  it  that 
he  is  provided  with  a  sharp  knife  or  sharp  knives.  In  ad- 
dition he  should  have  a  5%  solution  of  a  coal  tar  dis- 
infectant, some  cotton  pledgets,  some  suturing  thread 
and  a  needle  or  two  if  there  be  many  to  castrate.  The 
scrotum  should  be  thoroughly  washed  two  or  three  times 
with  the  disinfectant,  the  knife  should  be  disinfected, 
and  with  one  stroke  an  incision  should  be  made  on  either 
side  of  the  median  line  parallel  to  it  sufficiently  large  to 
permit  the  squeezing  out  of  the  testicle.  In  pigs  the  cord 
is  generally  severed  by  a  jerk,  in  shotes  by  scraping 
into,  and  in  boars  by  the  use  of  the  emasculator.  When 
the  pigs  are  of  any  size  it  may  be  well  to  ligature  the 
cord  before  severing. 

After  the  operation  is  performed  care  should  be  taken 
to  see  that  the  incision  comes  to  the  lowest  part  of  the 
scrotal  sac  to  prevent  an  accumulation  of  pus.  In  cool 
weather  it  will  probably  need  no  further  treatment  aside 
from  washing  with  the  disinfecting  solution.  In  warm 
weather  when  the  flies  are  bad  some  make  a  practice  of 
applying  pine  tar  to  the  wound.  If  a  hemorrhage  per- 


202  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

sists  it  may  be  treated  by  washing  out  with  hot  water,  by 
crushing  or  ligating  the  blood  vessel  or  by  packing  for 
twenty-four  hours  with  absorbent  cotton.  Cases  of  rup- 
ture due  to  an  enlarged  inguinal  canal  require  more  skill 
than  is  ordinarily  possessed  by  the  herdsman,  but  some 
develop  sufficient  skill  to  handle  such  cases. 

Tumors  are  rather  common  as  a  complication  follow- 
ing castration.  When  present  they  must  be  dissected 
out.  Abscesses  are  treated  in  a  similar  manner,  and  the 
main  thing  is  to  keep  them  open  and  washed  out  with 
a  disinfectant.  In  some  cases  only  one  testicle  comes 
down  in  the  scrotal  sac,  or  neither  may  come  down.  Such 
cases  are  called  cryptorchids  and  require  an  abdominal 
operation,  in  which  skill  is  required. 

Spaying. — A  few  years  ago  spaying  was  practiced  to 
some  extent  in  swine  herds,  but  now  but  few  are  spayed. 
This  comes  largely  from  the  fact  that  a  little  more  skill 
and  care  are  required  in  the  operation  than  in  castration, 
and  from  the  fact  that  we  now  market  our  sow  pigs  in- 
tended for  slaughter  at  an  early  age.  This  operation  is 
justified  only  in  rare  cases,  and  should  be  avoided  as 
much  as  possible. 

Hernia  or  rupture. — There  are  three  kinds  of  hernia  or 
rupture — umbilical,  scrotal  and  ventral.  All  involve  that 
condition  in  which  a  part  of  the  intestines  or  omentum 
pass  through  the  abdominal  wall  into  a  pocket  in  the  skin. 
The  umbilical  hernias  so  common  in  pigs  are  generally 
congenital,  although  they  may  result  from  an  injury.  The 
scrotal  hernias  result  from  an  overly  large  inguinal  canal. 
Ventral  hernias  result  from  protrusion  of  the  intestines 
as  a  result  of  a  tear  or  injury  in  the  abdominal  wall. 


SWINE  DISEASES  AND  THEIR   CONTROL  203 

Ruptures  are  more  or  less  dangerous  and  difficult  to 
handle,  and  should  only  be  treated  by  someone  skilled 
in  handling  such  cases. 

Abscesses  and  tumors. — The  location,  nature  and  con- 
ditions will,  to  a  large  measure,  determine  the  treatment 
indicated  in  the  case  of  an  abscess  or  tumor.  Abscesses 
on  the  exterior  should  be  opened  if  not  already  so.  Prior 
to  opening  they  should  be  brought  to  a  head  by  fomenta- 
tions or  blisters.  After  opening  they  should  be  washed 
out  daily  with  a  2  per  cent  solution  of  coal  tar  dip  so 
long  as  is  necessary.  Provision  should  be  made  to  pre- 
vent reinfection.  Tumors  are  more  difficult  to  handle  than 
abscesses  as  a  rule.  Their  growth  can  generally  be 
checked  by  two  or  three  treatments  of  potassium  iodide. 
After  they  become  encapsulated  they  can  be  dissected 
out  if  exposed. 

Prolapsus  of  the  anus. — This  condition  is  met  with  oc- 
casionally and  may  or  may  not  recover  of  its  own  accord. 
It  consists  in  a  protrusion  from  the  anus  of  a  portion  of 
the  rectal  intestines.  The  treatment  will  depend  on  the 
conditions.  The  protruding  part  can  be  cut  off  and  the 
edges  sutured  together  at  the  anus.  Where  practical  the 
parts  should  be  washed  with  astringent  solutions  and 
replaced.  Hogs  properly  looked  after  and  fed  are  seldom 
afflicted  with  this  condition. 

Cuts  and  bruises. — All  wounds,  cuts  and  exposed  sur- 
faces should  be  cleaned  and  disinfected,  the  jagged  edges 
cut  off  and  hydrogen  peroxide  applied  followed  by  an 
application  of  turpentine,  camphor  or  arnica  ointment. 
In  addition  to  this  the  healing  can  frequently  be  hastened 


204  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

by  a  dusting  with  powdered  alum  or  iodoform.  The 
wounds  should  be  washed  and  treated  daily  and  great 
care  taken  to  prevent  infection.  Bruises  are  to  be  treated 
slightly  different.  In  the  treatment  of  bruises  hot 
fomentations,  ice  packs,  arnica,  camphor,  stimulating 
liniments  and  lead  acetate  are  indicated  according  to  con- 
ditions. All  severe  bruises  should  receive  prompt  and 
regular  attention. 

Sanitation  and  disease  prevention. — Nothing  is  of 
greater  importance  in  the  control  of  disease  than  sanita- 
tion and  disease  prevention.  Fully  nine-tenths  of  the  dis- 
ease that  occurs  in  our  swine  herds  is  preventable.  Dis- 
ease prevention  consists  in  proper  methods  of  breeding, 
feeding  and  management.  Much  of  the  disease  we  have 
is  due  to  improper  feeding.  Pure  foods  are  as  important 
to  the  health  of  swine  as  they  are  to  the  health  of  men. 
The  foods  must  be  more  than  pure,  the  rations  must  be 
properly  balanced,  not  necessarily  so  much  as  the  rela- 
tion of  the  nutrients  is  concerned,  but  so  far  as  quality, 
quantity  and  suitability  for  the  purpose  are  concerned. 
Not  only  must  the  food  supply  be  looked  after,  but  pure 
water  must  be  present  in  abundance,  and  provision  must 
be  made  to  keep  it  cool,  clean  and  free  from  contamina- 
tion. The  hogs  must  also  be  provided  with  suitable  shel- 
ter in  winter  from  the  cold  and  wet  and  in  summer  from 
the  heat  and  rains. 

Disinfection. — In  order  to  ward  off  disease  it  is  nec- 
essary that  precautions  be  taken  to  destroy  disease  germs. 
Especially  when  a  disease  of  an  infectious  nature  has 
existed  on  premises,  efforts  should  be  made  to  destroy 
the  germs  and  their  hiding  places.  The  agents  to  be  used 


SWINE   DISEASES  AND  THEIR   CONTROL  205 

in  the  disinfection  of  houses,  sheds,  lots,  pens,  etc.,  will 
depend  on  several  factors,  chief  among  which  are  the 
organism  and  the  material  or  places  in  which  it  exists. 
A  1  per  cent  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  is  very  effec- 
tive, but  its  poisonous  nature  renders  its  use  more  or  less 
undesirable.  Chloride  of  lime  is  probably  the  most  valu- 
able, the  least  poisonous,  and  least  expensive  disinfecting 
agent  we  have,  when  used  at  the  rate  of  five  ounces  per 
gallon  of  water.  This  is  applied  by  spraying  the  infected 
parts  or  premises.  All  loose  litter  and  rubbish  likely  to 
be  infected  should  be  burned. 

In  addition  to  the  cleaning  up  and  disinfection  of 
premises  proper  disposition  must  be  made  of  the  bodies 
of  hogs  that  have  died  of  disease.  These  can  be  either 
buried  or  burned.  In  either  case  the  work  should  be  com- 
plete. In  burying,  the  top  of  the  carcass  should  not  be 
nearer  than  four  feet  to  the  top  of  the  ground.  A  good 
plan  is  to  sprinkle  some  chloride  of  lime  over  the  carcass 
after  placing  it  in  the  ground.  When  the  carcasses  can 
be  burned  it  is  best.  Fat  hog  carcasses  burn  fairly  easy. 
A  good  plan  is  to  place  the  carcass  on  a  stump  and  pile 
brush  about  it  to  start  the  fire.  Where  brush  piles  are 
available  hogs  can  frequently  be  burned  by  placing  them 
on  top  of  the  pile  and  firing.  Where  wood  is  not  plenti- 
ful a  carcass  can  be  burned  at  little  expense  and  trouble 
by  digging  a  trench  and  placing  supporting  iron  bars 
across,  and  then  by  placing  the  carcass  on  the  bars  and 
burning  wood  beneath.  As  soon  as  the  fat  starts  drip- 
ping the  carcass  will  usually  burn  from  then  on  of  its 
own  accord. 

In  disinfection  work  and  prevention  of  infection  care 
must  always  be  taken  to  see  that  the  hogs  do  not  have 


206  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

an  opportunity  at  infection.  One  of  the  most  neglected 
sources  of  infection  is  the  barnyard  manure  pile.  Dirty 
and  filthy  lots  with  stagnant  water,  old  mud  wallows 
and  outhouses  are  frequent  sources  of  infection  and  dis- 
ease germ  breeding  grounds. 

Hog  wallows. — A  clean  wallow  is  a  source  of  comfort 
and  health  to  the  hog.  The  average  farm  hog  wallow 
is,  however,  not  kept  clean,  and  instead  of  being  a  source 
of  health  they  often  become  a  breeding  and  distributing 
place  for  disease  germs.  A  good  concrete  hog  wallow 
can  be  kept  clean  and  a  little  kerosene  or  coal  tar  dip 
added  to  the  water  occasionally  will  materially  assist  in 
killing  the  lice. 

Dipping  vats. — A  very  practical  means  contributing 
to  the  general  health  of  the  swine  herd  is  the  dipping  vat. 
It  consists  essentially  in  a  tank  of  special  design  into 
which  a  dipping  solution  is  placed  and  through  which 
the  hogs  are  driven.  Where  feasible  a  dipping  vat  made 
of  concrete  is  most  satisfactory.  The  shape  of  the  vat 
should  be  such  that  a  hog  falls  into  it  at  one  end  and 
walks  out  at  the  other.  The  arrangement  of  the  pens, 
chutes,  drain  pipes  and  dripping  boards  are  dependent 
on  local  conditions.  The  vat  should  be  deep  enough  that 
the  hog  will  be  completely  submerged  when  he  first  falls 
in.  Experience  in  various  instances  has  resulted  in  a 
general  agreement  as  to  the  best  size  for  a  dipping  vat. 
An  inside  top  length  of  8  feet,  top  width  of  24  inches,  and 
bottom  width  of  20  inches  are  very  good  dimensions.  The 
end  of  the  vat  where  the  hog  enters  should  be  perpen- 
dicular, and  the  end  where  he  walks  out  should  be  slant- 
ing, with  corrugations  to  prevent  slipping. 


SWINE  DISEASES  AND  THEIR   CONTROL  207 

In  the  construction  of  a  concrete  dipping  vat  the  ex- 
cavation should  be  dug  8  inches  larger  than  the  dimen- 
sions given  above,  which  will  allow  for  a  4-inch  wall. 
The  grouting  should  be  placed  first  on  the  bottom  and  on 
the  incline.  The  inside  forms  should  then  be  put  up, 
using  the  dirt  as  the  outside  forms.  Reinforcements  of 
woven  wire  can  be  used  to  strengthen  the  vat,  but  it  is 
unnecessary.  A  1:2:4  mixture  should  be  used  for  the 
grouting  and  a  1 :2  mixture  for  the  facing.  Anyone 
contemplating  the  construction  of  a  vat  should  secure 
some  of  the  excellent  bulletins  and  other  publications 
devoted  to  the  subject.  Most  all  of  the  state  veteri- 
narians and  State  Agricultural  Extension  Departments 
are  equipped  to  give  instructions  and  information  along 
this  line  and  in  many  instances  they  can  furnish  a  limited 
amount  of  immediate  supervision. 

Dipping  solutions. — There  are  many  effective  solutions 
that  can  be  used  in  dipping  vats  for  treating  lice  and 
mange.  Crude  oil,  lubricating  or  engine  oil,  or  kerosene 
to  which  some  sulphur  has  been  added,  when  placed  on 
top  of  the  water  in  the  vat,  makes  a  fairly  good  dip.  A 
mixture  of  8  pounds  of  fresh  lime,  24  pounds  of 
flowers  of  sulphur  and  100  gallons  of  water  makes  a 
large  quantity  of  good  disinfectant  when  properly  pre- 
pared. The  lime  should  be  slaked  with  enough  water  to 
form  a  thick  paste,  with  which  the  sulphur  should  be  well 
mixed.  Twenty-five  or  30  gallons  of  water  are  then 
added  and  the  whole  boiled  for  at  least  an  hour.  Water 
sufficient  to  make  100  gallons  of  dip  is  then  added.  This 
dip  gives  the  best  results  when  used  warm,  although  it 
is  nearly  as  effective  used  cold.  In  addition  to  the  home- 
made dips  there  are  several  excellent  commercial  dips 


208  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

containing  coal  tar  derivatives.  Of  course,  the  same 
solutions  that  are  used  in  the  dipping  vats  may  be  used 
in  the  wallows,  but  they  should  only  be  used  in  diluted 
form.  The  job  is  usually  not  so  thorough  in  the  case  of 
the  wallow  as  with  the  vat. 

The  hog  oiler. — In  recent  years  a  number  of  new  de- 
vices have  been  placed  on  the  market  designed  to  assist 
in  killing  lice  on  hogs  by  means  of  an  application  of  oil 
to  the  skin.  These  have  proven  quite  valuable.  They  do 
not  take  the  place  of  the  dipping  vat  on  the  hog  farm, 
however.  In  principle  these  oilers  have  a  reservoir  for 
holding  the  crude  oil,  with  a  feeding  arrangement  so  that 
the  hog  rubs  on  some  part  of  the  machine  and  the  part 
of  the  hog  rubbed  receives  a  coating  of  the  oil,  which 
will  kill  all  of  the  lice  it  comes  in  contact  with.  The 
same  results  can  be  secured  by  tying  old  grain  sacks 
around  rubbing  posts  and  saturating  with  oil  or  by  pour- 
ing the  oil  in  the  wallows,  but  these  methods  are  a  little 
more  wasteful  of  the  oil  than  are  the  patented  devices. 


CHAPTER  IX 
MARKETING 

Marketing. — Regardless  of  the  phase  of  the  pork  in- 
dustry in  which  one  is  primarily  interested,  it  is  quite 
essential  that  he  carefully  consider  the  marketing  end 
if  profits  are  to  be  expected.  He  is  naturally  a  producer 
and  must  be  prepared  to  sell  his  products.  Growers  of 
swine  generally  fall  into  one  of  two  classes,  depending 
on  their  source  of  profit.  The  hog  grower  or  the  pork 
producer  is  the  man  whose  principal  product  is  fat  hogs 
for  making  pork.  The  swine  breeder  makes  a  business 
of  breeding  pure-bred  swine,  to  be  used  either  in  the 
breeding  of  other  pure-bred  swine  or  to  be  used  in  pork- 
producing  herds.  Of  course,  in  so  far  as  the  marketing 
end  is  concerned,  the  market  producer  of  swine  and  the 
breeder  of  pure-bred  swine  bear  a  close  relationship  to 
each  other.  The  market  producer  is  dependent  on  the 
breeder  to  a  large  extent  to  keep  up  the  perfection  and 
standards  of  his  herd.  The  breeder  is  largely  dependent 
on  the  market  producer  for  his  sales  of  breeding  stock. 
In  many  herds  the  owner  is  both  breeder  and  market 
hog  producer,  which  may  be  the  ideal  arrangement.  In 
either  case  it  is  most  important  that  every  man  engaged 
in  the  breeding  or  growing  of  swine  closely  follow  the 
market  and  its  demands  in  order  to  produce  that  type 
which  sells  to  the  best  advantage.  The  marketing  of 
pure-bred  swine  is  distinct  from  the  marketing  of  fat 
hogs  and  should  receive  separate  consideration. 

209 


210  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

Marketing  of  pure-bred  swine. — There  is  a  demand 
and  market  for  pure-bred  swine,  but  finding  a  purchaser 
is  costly  and  a  large  advertising  expense  seems  unavoid- 
able. The  two  principal  ways  of  advertising  are  by  using 
the  advertising  space  of  farm  papers  and  by  going  to  the 
expense  and  trouble  of  showing.  In  many  cases  the 
breeder  himself  must  attend  the  shows  and  sales  in  order 
to  keep  up  his  acquaintance  with  other  breeders  and 
swine  growers  and  to  keep  posted  on  the  types  most 
highly  prized  and  sought  after.  With  the  small  breeder 
in  particular  does  the  cost  of  advertising  come  high. 
Combination  and  consignment  sales  will,  of  course,  re- 
duce the  expense  of  selling  and  they  are  of  special  benefit 
to  the  small  producer.  The  widely  scattered  small 
breeders  are  the  ones  that  will  really  do  the  most  good, 
and  the  ideal  way  will  be,  of  course,  when  all  farmers 
produce  pure  breds  or  nearly  pure  breds. 

Shipping  pure-bred  swine. — One  of  the  principal  things 
in  the  marketing  of  pure-bred  swine  that  does  not  con- 
cern the  producer  of  pork  hogs  is  that  of  proper  shipping. 
In  the  case  of  pure-bred  swine  shipments  are  gen- 
erally made  by  express  with  one  or  two  pigs  at  a  time, 
while  in  the  case  of  swine  intended  for  use  as  pork  the 
shipments  are  usually  made  in  quantity,  generally  in 
carload  lots  by  freight. 

The  art  of  shipping  pure-bred  swine  comes  only  from 
experience.  Care  must  be  taken  to  make  the  crates  light 
but  strong,  provision  must  be  made  to  see  that  the  hogs 
are  comfortable  and  do  not  have  a  chance  to  hurt  them- 
selves, and  to  see  that  ways  and  means  are  offered  for 
feeding  and  watering  if  they  are  to  go  any  distance. 
When  a  sow  and  pigs  are  to  be  shipped,  the  problem  be- 


MARKETING  211 

comes  more  complicated.  If  the  distance  is  not  over  two 
or  three  hundred  miles  the  sow  can  be  shipped  in  one 
crate  and  the  pigs  in  another.  Where  the  shipment  is 
farther  the  sow  and  pigs  can  be  shipped  in  the  same 
crate  if  it  is  of  a  special  design.  In  the  shipping  of  breed- 
ing swine  there  are  other  considerations  not  met  with  in 
the  case  of  market  hogs.  The  matter  of  registration 
papers  has  to  be  looked  after,  the  inoculation  against 
cholera  and  other  health  precautions  are  frequently  dif- 
ferent from  those  for  hogs  intended  for  slaughter. 

Profits  from  pork  production. — There  are  two  factors 
controlling  to  a  large  extent  the  profits  to  be  made  from 
the  production  of  pork.  One  of  these  is  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction and  the  other  is  the  net  sales.  We  are  naturally 
interested  in  producing  at  least  possible  cost  to  give  us 
a  greater  selling  margin.  So  far  as  the  selling  end  is 
concerned,  we  are  especially  interested  in  the  gross  sales 
and  the  costs  incidental  to  making  the  sales.  The  dif- 
ference between  this  net  sale  figure  and  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction is  the  net  profit  from  the  operation.  As  a  rule 
the  market  value  can  be  approximated  more  closely  than 
the  cost  of  production,  since  the  market  value  is  in- 
fluenced by  fewer  factors.  The  market  value  is  almost 
entirely  dependent  on  the  supply  and  demand  and  upon 
the  costs  of  marketing. 

Factors  influencing  cost  of  production. — The  cost  of 
production  is  dependent  on  both  economic  and  local  con- 
ditions. Of  the  economic  conditions  influencing  the  cost 
of  production  we  have  the  market  value  of  the  land 
and  equipment,  interest  on  the  investment  in  other  than 
land  and  equipment,  and  the  natural  adaptability  of  the 


212  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

farm  for  pork  production.  Among  the  local  conditions 
influencing  the  cost  of  production  we  have  as  the  most 
important  the  rate  and  cost  of  gains,  the  cost  of  main- 
taining a  breeding  herd,  and  the  degree  to  which  the  hogs 
are  grown  or  fattened  before  marketing.  Under  the  first 
of  these  local  conditions  we  might  include  the  cost  of 
feed,  the  cost  of  labor,  the  kinds  of  feed  and  the  value 
of  the  manures  produced.  Under  the  last  heading,  the 
degree  of  condition  and  growth,  we  might  include  the 
breeding,  which  involves  type  and  quality. 

The  lard  type  of  hog. — The  predominating  type  on  the 
markets  of  the  entire  country  is  the  American  or  lard 
type  of  hog,  which  has  been  developed  largely  as  the 
type  best  suited  to  Corn  Belt  conditions.  The  type  has 
been  to  a  large  extent  adopted  in  its  entirety  by  the 
South,  although  we  are  best  equipped  for  the  production 
of  an  intermediate  type  between  the  fat  or  lard  hog  and 
the  bacon  type,  with  the  ideal  approaching  the  lard  type 
rather  than  the  bacon  hog.  The  hogs  from  the  southern 
farms  do  not  average  as  fat  as  the  hogs  from  the  Corn 
Belt,  and  the  indications  are  that  the  hogs  coming  from 
southern  farms  will  never  average  as  fat  .as  hogs  coming 
from  the  Corn  Belt  farms.  This  will  come  about  nat- 
urally from  a  more  extensive  use  of  grazing  crops,  the 
greater  economy  of  production  of  lean  over  fat,  and  as 
a  result  of  climatic  conditions. 

Bacon  types  for  special  markets. — In  pork-packing 
establishments  the  carcasses  are  examined  by  experts, 
who  determine  which  carcasses  will  make  good  breakfast 
bacon.  Only  a  few  are  found  that  will  make  first-class 
bacon.  It  often  happens  that  a  hog  of  one  of  the  lard 


MARKETING  213 

breeds  will  make  good  bacon,  owing  to  individual  pe- 
culiarities, or  to  the  influence  of  feeding,  or  both.  But 
by  raising  the  bacon  type  of  hog  and  feeding  properly, 
nearly  every  animal  will  make  good  bacon,  and  if  there 
is  a  proper  market  accessible,  or  if  the  bacon  is  intended 
for  family  use,  the  raising  of  such  hogs  may  become  de- 
sirable and  profitable.  It  is  only  in  a  very  rare  instance 
that  the  use  of  a  strictly  bacon  breed  of  swine  is  to  be 
recommended  under  southern  conditions,  for,  as  has  been 
pointed  out  before,  the  ideal  southern  type  will  more 
nearly  resemble  the  lard  type  rather  than  the  bacon  type. 

Marketing  finished  pork. — The  establishment  of  pork- 
packing  plants  in  many  towns  and  cities  in  the  South 
is  one  of  the  most  striking  developments  at  present  along 
the  line  of  marketing  swine  products.  Steady  and  con- 
stant markets  will  result  as  a  natural  sequence,  and  the 
marketing  end  of  the  swine  business  will  not  be  so  diffi- 
cult in  the  future  as  in  the  past.  It  is  the  plan  of  these 
packing  plants  to  take  care  of  any  excess  production  over 
immediate  demands  of  the  local  butchers.  A  great  many 
farmers  do  not  raise  enough  pork  for  their  own  use,  or 
else  they  raise  it  but  sell  it  and  buy  fresh  and  cured  pork 
for  several  times  what  they  sell  their  own  for.  This 
failure  to  produce  a  supply  of  pork  for  home  consump- 
tion is  a  loss  to  be  regretted.  We  should  first  produce 
enough  pork  for  home  consumption  and  then  have  some 
to  market,  according  to  the  emphasis  we  place  on  pork 
as  a  source  of  income. 

Seasonal  demands  of  the  market. — One  factor  which 
the  producer  of  pork  must  take  into  consideration,  es- 
pecially if  he  is  supplying  the  demands  of  the  local  mar- 


214  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

ket,  is  the  influence  which  the  season  may  have  upon 
the  demand  for  pork.  This  applies  especially  to  fresh 
pork.  As  a  rule  the  consumption  of  fresh  pork  is  much 
greater  in  the  colder  than  in  the  warmer  months.  The 
price  will  generally  average  over  10  per  cent  greater  for 
the  colder  or  winter  months.  In  addition  to  this,  the 
consumer  in  the  winter  months  seeks  pork  with  more  fat 
than  in  the  summer  months.  This  influence  of  the  sea- 
sonal demands  of  the  markets  is  of  special  importance  to 
the  small  producer,  especially  the  one  who  markets 
locally  for  home  consumption.  If  a  producer  is  supply- 
ing hogs  to  one  of  the  central  markets,  it  will  generally 
be  found  that  the  demand  is  fair  the  year  through. 
Fortunately,  those  seasons  of  the  year  in  which  pork  is 
least  in  demand  are  the  same  months  in  which  it  is  more 
difficult  to  fit  hogs  for  the  market.  Later  in  the  year, 
when  the  demands  for  fresh  fat  pork  begin  to  improve, 
there  is  an  abundance  of  forage  crops  admirably  suited 
for  fitting  hogs  for  slaughter. 

Pork  producers  should  study  the  market. — Producers 
of  pork  should  study  the  market  in  order  that  they  may 
know  what  to  produce  that  will  bring  the  highest  prices. 
It  is  very  essential  that  they  visit  the  market  occasionally 
and  familiarize  themselves  with  the  different  market 
classes  and  grades.  They  could  then  interpret  market 
quotations  and  know  better  what  their  hogs  should  bring 
if  placed  on  the  market  at  any  particular  time.  Producers 
should  keep  posted  on  market  conditions,  either  through 
a  good  market  paper  or  through  the  letters  of  commis- 
sion firms,  who  advise  their  clients  as  to  market  condi- 
tions daily  or  weekly  as  the  case  may  be.  By  continually 
keeping  up  with  the  market  one  is  frequently  enabled  to 


MARKETING  215 

realize  a  greater  profit  than  when  the  hogs  are  blindly 
thrown  on  the  market,  as  they  are  in  many  cases. 

Produce  what  the  market  demands. — All  those  interested 
in  pork  production  are  in  the  last  analysis  dependent 
upon  the  demands  of  the  ultimate  consumer.  We  must, 
therefore,  learn  what  he  desires,  for  if  we  have  something 
that  is  wanted  there  will  be  no  trouble  to  sell  it.  We 
must  recognize  that  there  are  different  kinds  of  pork. 
What  the  ultimate  consumer  wants  is  pork  that  is  tender, 
juicy,  palatable,  and  with  as  little  waste  as  possible  in 
cooking.  It  must  also  present  an  attractive  appearance 
to  sell  well.  The  tenderness,  juiciness  and  palatability 
depend  largely  upon  cooking.  Of  course  not  all  of  our 
pork  is  sold  over  the  block  to  be  used  as  fresh  pork,  but 
a  very  large  portion  of  it  is  made  up  into  cured  pork 
products,  such  as  bacon,  hams,  shoulders,  white  or  dry 
salt  meat  and  various  canned  and  smoked  products.  In 
general,  these  also  must  possess  the  qualities  demanded 
in  fresh  pork  to  command  the  best  prices. 

Change  in  market  demands. — An  inspection  of  the 
kinds  of  hogs  coming  onto  southern  markets  today  as 
compared  with  ten  years  ago  shows  a  marked  difference. 
Ten  years  ago  the  percentage  of  swine  with  improved 
breeding  predominating  was  much  smaller  than  at  pres- 
ent. They  were  generally  a  year  or  more  of  age,  and 
the  scrub  and  unimproved  swine,  of  course,  had  no  great 
size.  Today,  however,  we  find  the  majority  of  the  hogs 
coming  to  the  market  show  some  evidence  of  breeding. 
The  present  types  are  the  early-maturing  types,  and  a 
large  percentage  are  under  one  year  of  age.  The  hog 
in  greatest  demand  seems  to  weigh  in  the  neighborhood 


216  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

of  150  to  175  pounds,  and  pigs,  when  in  good  condition, 
are  becoming  much  more  popular  than  formerly. 

Most  desirable  age  for  marketing. — The  most  desirable 
age  at  which  to  market  is  usually  the  earliest  age  at 
which  the  hog  reaches  that  stage  of  maturity  and  fatten- 
ing when  it  is  suited  for  the  making  of  pork.  The  most 
desirable  age  is  dependent  to  a  large  extent  upon  the 
time  of  year  the  pigs  are  born  and  upon  the  crops  grown 
for  fattening.  Early  spring  pigs  are  generally  best  mar- 
keted in  the  early  fall  at  eight  or  nine  months  of  age. 
Late  spring  pigs  are  generally  marketed  in  late  fall  or 
during  the  fore  part  of  the  next  year,  at  which  time  they 
will  be  ten  months  or  a  year  of  age.  Fall  pigs  should  be 
marketed  in  the  summer  or  early  fall.  If  they  come  early 
in  the  fall  they  may  be  marketed  in  summer,  while  if 
they  come  later  they  are  generally  at  the  proper  age  and 
condition  for  marketing  very  late  the  following  summer 
or  early  fall  at  from  nine  to  eleven  months  of  age.  It  is 
rarely  advisable  to  market  before  eight  months  or  later 
than  twelve  months  of  age,  and  all  else  being  equal,  the 
earlier  the  better.  One  is  controlled  in  marketing  not 
alone  by  size  and  age  of  the  pig  and  condition  of  the 
market,  but  primarily  by  the  feed  supply. 

Most  desirable  size  for  marketing. — The  most  desir- 
able size  for  marketing  will  depend  on  the  time  of  year 
and  the  market.  The  market  will  usually  take  heavier 
hogs  during  colder  months  than  during  the  warmer 
months.  At  a  large  packing  center  the  size  is  not  of 
such  great  consequence,  for  there  is  always  a  demand 
for  every  size  of  hog.  It  has  been  found,  however,  that 
the  size  that  is  in  greatest  demand  on  the  central  mar- 


218  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

kets  is  that  size  averaging  about  180  to  200  pounds.  For 
home  slaughtering  purposes  this  is  also  a  very  satisfac- 
tory size.  In  the  winter  months  a  heavier  weight  may 
be  used  to  advantage,  and  in  summer  a  lighter  weight  is 
readily  salable. 

The  economy  of  early  marketing. — The  producer  of 
pork  must  continually  bear  in  mind  the  advantages  to  be 
derived  from  early  marketing.  The  gains  are  made  at  a 
greater  expense  as  the  hog  grows  older;  the  longer 
one  keeps  a  hog  the  longer  he  has  to  maintain  him  or 
supply  him  with  maintenance  feed,  that  feed  which  makes 
no  gain,  but  which  is  necessary  for  the  continuation  of 
the  animal's  life.  Thus,  in  order  to  minimize  this  main- 
tenance cost  and  to  produce  the  gains  at  the  lowest  cost, 
we  should  aim  to  place  on  maximum  gains  at  the  earliest 
age  possible,  in  order  that  the  production  may  be  the 
most  economical. 

Finishing  for  market. — While  the  growth  process  had 
best  not  be  allowed  to  slacken  from  the  time  it  is  started 
until  the  hogs  are  marketed,  it  is  often  not  advisable  to 
try  to  make  the  maximum  fat  production  from  the  start. 
It  is  easily  possible  to  arrange  for  ample  fattening  feeds 
to  come  on  in  the  summer  and  fall  of  the  year.  A  few 
of  these  are  of  such  a  nature  that  they  will  keep  over 
through  early  spring,  but  there  is  a  decided  dearth  of 
fattening  feeds  from  the  time  spring  opens  up  until  mid- 
summer, or  until  the  early  cowpeas  or  corn  come  on. 
Of  course  one  can  feed  corn  or  other  concentrates  during 
that  season  when  fattening  feeds  are  scarce,  but  so  far 
as  practical  the  fattening  should  be  done  in  the  fields  with 
a  minimum  of  lot  feeding.  Crops  suitable  to  finish  hogs 


MARKETING  219 

for  the  market  in  the  field  must  be  provided  for  if  the 
pork  is  to  be  produced  in  the  most  economical  way. 

When  to  ship. — With  a  continually  fluctuating  market 
a  producer  is  at  a  loss  to  know  when  it  is  the  most 
opportune  time  to  make  a  shipment.  What  the  producer 
desires  is,  of  course,  to  sell  at  the  best  figure  possible. 
In  this  connection,  where  a  producer  ships  to  market 
there  is  one  general  rule  that  most  successful  shippers 
follow,  and  that  is  to  ship  on  a  rising  rather  than  a  de- 
clining market.  Too  many  shippers  wait  too  long  and 
ship  about  the  time  the  market  breaks,  and  they  realize 
less  on  their  shipments  than  they  would  have  earlier. 
The  object  should  be,  therefore,  to  ship  early  on  a  rising 
market  before  the  bulk  of  the  shipments  are  received. 

Preparing  hogs  for  shipment. — Before  loading  a  ship- 
ment of  hogs  they  should  be  properly  cared  for  so  as  to 
avoid  excessive  shrinkage  in  transit  and  insure  arrival 
at  the  market  in  good  order.  Especially  are  hogs  apt  to 
shrink  considerably  if  they  go  direct  from  a  grazing 
patch  containing  succulent  materials.  Therefore,  just 
before  shipment,  one  should  aim  to  feed  them  feeds  that 
will  stay  with  them,  feeds  not  too  heating  or  too  con- 
centrated in  nature.  Good  feeds  for  this  purpose  are 
corn  and  cob  meal,  crushed  oats  and  ripe  grain  pasture. 
This  grain  feeding  is  also  desirable,  since  it  will  give  the 
hogs  the  appearance  of  having  been  grain-fed  when  the 
grain  shows  up  in  the  droppings,  and  they  will  be  less 
apt  to  be  discriminated  against.  If  the  haul  is  very 
long,  provision  must  be  made  for  feeding  and  watering 
in  transit.  According  to  the  present  law,  the  railroad 
has  to  unload  and  feed  after  28  hours  in  transit,  but  the 


220  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

shippers  generally  sign  a  release  allowing  of  a  longer 
limit  of  time  so  that  the  hogs  reach  the  market  before 
it  is  necessary  to  feed  again.  However,  in  case  it  is  nec- 
essary to  feed  in  transit  corn  alone  should  not  be  fed, 
especially  in  summer,  on  account  of  its  heating  qualities 
and  the  possibilities  of  indigestion  due  to  the  riding.  A 
good  dry  mash  of  bran,  crushed  oats  and  corn  is  cooling 
and  refreshing  and  is  apt  to  get  the  hogs  through  in  the 
best  condition.  During  the  hot  weather  hogs  should 
leave  the  shipping  point,  where  possible,  during  the  late 
afternoon,  and  in  most  cases  they  will  arrive  at  the  mar- 
ket in  the  night,  or  early  the  next  morning. 

Average  carloads. — The  number  of  hogs  that  can  be 
shipped  in  a  single  car  is  dependent  on  several  factors, 
among  which  are  the  size  of  the  car,  the  size  of  the  hogs, 
distance  to  be  shipped,  the  kind  of  hogs,  the  kind  of  car, 
whether  double  or  single  deck,  and  the  weather  condi- 
tions. Extensive  reports  on  railroad  shipments  and 
stockyard  receipts  show  that  in  single-deck  cars  the 
number  generally  runs  about  90  to  100  head  for  light 
hogs  and  from  150  to  175  for  light  hogs  in  double-decked 
cars.  It  is  always  better  to  have  a  car  loaded  too  light 
than  too  heavy. 

Marketing. — The  two  principal  ways  of  marketing 
hogs  are  selling  to  local  buyers  and  shipping  direct  to  a 
central  market.  There  are  advantages  to  both  methods 
and  the  most  advisable  one  will  depend  on  circumstances. 
Frequently  one  can  do  better  selling  to  local  buyers  even 
in  quantity.  That  will  all  depend,  however,  on  the  con- 
dition of  the  market  and  the  kinds  and  quantity  of  hogs 
one  is  marketing. 


MARKETING  221 

Marketing  through  local  buyers. — Selling  to  the  local 
buyer  or  shipper  is  one  of  the  most  feasible  methods  of 
marketing  pork  open  to  the  farmer  and  small  producer. 
The  regular  shipper  is  known  on  the  market  and  can 
generally  secure  the  best  prices  obtainable.  Also,  in  sell- 
ing to  the  local  buyer  the  risks  from  loss  are  lessened 
and  the  trouble  is  far  less.  If  there  is  a  decline  in  the 
market  during  transit,  it  is  the  shipper  and  not  the  grower 
that  suffers.  The  shipper's  long  experience  is  always 
worth  something,  and  the  seller  gets  the  benefit  of  that. 
Thus  the  local  buyer  can  frequently  be  used  to  advan- 
tage, as  the  difference  between  the  price  he  is  able  to  pay 
and  the  probable  price  one  would  obtain  by  shipping 
direct  is  not  sufficient  to  cover  shrinkage,  freight  termi- 
nal and  commission  charges,  and  the  risks  of  one  sort 
and  another  that  must  be  assumed. 

Shipping  direct  to  the  market. — This  method  of  mar- 
keting has  many  distinct  advantages,  but  it  is  accom- 
panied by  risks.  By  this  method  the  producer  always 
gets  the  profit  which  might  fall  to  the  local  buyer.  This 
method  of  marketing  gives  the  grower  a  chance  to  learn 
what  the  demands  of  the  markets  are.  By  learning  this 
he  can  more  intelligently  and  profitably  cater  to  the  de- 
mands of  the  market.  He  meets  men  from  other  sections 
and  profits  from  their  experiences.  He  also  comes  to  know 
the  commission  men,  learns  the  markets  and  obtains  in- 
formation in  general,  which,  when  applied,  will  assist 
him  in  increasing  profits. 

Co-operative  shipping  of  swine. — This  method  of  ship- 
ping is  to  be  recommended  and  should  be  more  exten- 
sively practiced.  By  this  method  the  profits  of  the  ship- 


MARKETING  223 

ping  point  buyer  are  eliminated.  A  co-operative  shipping 
association  in  one  state  saves  its  shippers  annually  over 
$6,000,  according  to  figures  given  out  by  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture.  These  co-operative 
shipping  associations  are  organized  for  the  most  part  in 
connection  with  other  enterprises.  Some  handle  in  ad- 
dition to  swine  and  other  live  stock,  lumber,  coal,  grain, 
feed  and  farm  implements.  A  few  handle  live  stock  ex- 
clusively. The  financial  arrangement  is  generally  for 
the  shippers  to  share  pro  rata  in  costs  and  to  pay  the 
manager  or  shipper  a  flat  rate  per  car  of  from  $6  to  $10 
for  the  first  car  and  $5  each  for  additional  cars  on  any 
one  day.  In  some  instances  the  fee  may  be  put  on 
the  shipping-weight  basis,  the  manager  to  receive  from 
5  to  10  cents  per  hundredweight.  The  advantages  of 
such  a  co-operative  shipping  arrangement  are  obvious. 
The  railroads  give  better  service  in  this  way,  better 
prices  are  usually  obtained,  one  can  make  a  shipment 
when  he  is  ready  regardless  of  the  number  he  may  have, 
the  member  does  not  have  to  deal  with  the  local  buyers, 
and  these,  with  the  other  advantages  offered,  are  suffi- 
cient to  justify  the  existence  of  such  an  organization 
whenever  a  sufficient  number  of  hogs  are  produced  in 
a  community. 

Lack  of  shipping  facilities. — Under  the  present  method 
of  production  the  individual  breeders  and  the  different 
sections  are  not  producing  a  sufficient  number  of  swine 
to  justify  the  most  efficient  methods  of  marketing.  Even 
the  railroads  in  the  South  do  not  handle  shipments  of 
swine  with  the  same  facility  and  satisfaction  as  in  other 
sections  where  more  are  produced.  They  are  rapidly 
overcoming  this  drawback,  however,  and  as  soon  as  swine 


224  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

are  produced  in  greater  quantities  this  will  be  one  of  the 
first  of  the  serious  handicaps  to  profitable  marketing 
to  be  corrected. 

Early  methods  of  transportation. — The  early  method 
of  transportation  of  live  stock  in  the  South  was  by  driv- 
ing. This  method  was  extensively  practiced  up  to  the 
time  of  the  war  and  for  some  time  thereafter.  In  the 
earlier  days  this  was  the  only  feasible  method  of  trans- 
portation. Even  after  the  railroads  traversed  the  country 
the  necessary  expense  prohibited  their  use  in  the  trans- 
porting of  many  droves  of  swine.  Prior  to  1850  the 
transportation  of  swine  by  any  other  method  than  driv- 
ing was  almost  unheard  of.  Driving  routes  to  market 
points  were  generally  selected  where  ample  feed  could 
be  secured  en  route.  The  practice  was  to  drive  largely 
at  night  during  hot  weather.  Where  the  distance  to  mar- 
ket was  far,  several  days  would  be  required,  and  by  this 
method  they  could  be  taken  to  market  at  a  considerable 
profit  with  little  or  no  shrinkage.  The  driving  of  hogs 
has  largely  been  superseded  by  hauling  with  wagons  and 
by  railroads,  and  in  the  future  railway  transportation  of 
swine  will  be  of  a  considerably  greater  extent  than  in 
the  past. 

Stockyards. — At  several  central  points  in  the  South 
there  are  central  markets  at  which  there  are  stockyards 
to  provide  ample  handling  facilities  for  hogs.  Markets 
of  this  kind  are  located  at  Augusta,  Ga.,  Baltimore,  Md., 
Oklahoma  City,  Okla.,  Ft.  Worth,  Tex.,  and  at  other 
points.  Practically  all  of  these  stockyards  are  controlled 
by  an  incorporated  company,  with  the  stock  held  by 
various  interests,  generally  railroads,  packing  companies 


MARKETING  225 

and  live  stock  dealers  holding  the  greater  part  of  the 
stock.  These  stockyards  are  usually  located  out  some 
distance  from  the  city  on  account  of  cheaper  land  and 
better  location  for  the  packing  plants  that  are  nearly  al- 
ways associated  with  the  yards.  The  yards  are  usually 
laid  out  after  the  manner  of  a  town  site,  with  the  various 
yards  representing  the  blocks,  and  the  driveways  and 
alleys  representing  the  streets.  Packing  plants  and  other 
buildings  are  generally  near.  Railway  tracks  usually 
run  along  the  side  of  and  through  the  yards.  A  central 
exchange  building  known  as  the  live  stock  exchange  is 
always  present  in  the  larger  yards.  The  live  stock  ex- 
change is  really  an  organization  of  the  buyers  and  sellers 
and  dealers  that  do  business  in  the  yards.  Their  pur- 
pose is  to  control  and  regulate  trading.  Either  the  stock 
exchange  or  the  stockyards  company  prescribes  all  the 
rules  under  which  stock  enter  the  yards.  They  have  fixed 
charges  on  the  use  of  the  yards,  commissions,  costs  of 
feeds,  switching  charges,  insurance,  etc.  The  stockyard 
companies  handle  the  stock  after  it  reaches  the  yards 
and  they  do  all  of  the  weighing  which  the  buyer  pays 
for  at  a  fixed  rate  per  head.  The  dealers' in  the  yards 
are  usually  divided  into  two  classes — the  buyers  and 
sellers.  The  sellers  are  generally  commission  men. 
Methods  of  settlement  vary  somewhat,  but  they  are 
usually  on  a  cash  basis  and  are  made  through  local 
banks. 

Market  costs. — When  one  has  a  car  of  hogs  to  be 
shipped,  if  he  is  the  business  man  he  should  be,  he  will 
figure  up  all  the  attendant  costs  and  figure  the  price  his 
hogs  should  bring  him.  Fortunately,  most  of  the  costs 
incidental  to  marketing  are  fixed  and  are  pretty  well 


226  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

known,  and  the  total  costs  may  be  figured  quite  closely. 
The  freight  charges  are  all  well  known  and  fixed.  There 
may  be  some  terminal  charges,  but  these  are  also  con- 
stant, then  there  may  be  yardage  charges  and  commission 
charges,  with  possibly  a  few  incidentals  in  the  way  of 
telegrams  and  telephone  messages.  These  improved  con- 
ditions make  the  business  more  profitable,  and  profits  are 
almost  guaranteed  where  certainties  have  displaced  un- 
certainties to  such  a  large  extent. 

Commission  houses. — Commission  firms  on  the  larger 
markets  are  a  very  necessary  adjunct.  They  are  special- 
ists in  securing  high  prices.  The  stockyards  company 
usually  assigns  pens  or  lots  to  each  firm,  and  the  firms 
then  employ  a  force  to  see  that  their  consignments  re- 
ceive prompt  attention  in  the  way  of  rest,  feed  and  water. 
Frequently  they  may  receive  a  large  number  of  cars  of 
mixed  stuff.  They  may  take  these  and  grade  and  classify 
them  and  secure  appreciably  better  prices.  Then  they 
pay  each  consignor  just  what  his  hogs  totaled,  although 
they  may  have  been  sold  in  three  or  four  different  lots 
in  order  to  secure  a  larger  sum  for  the  consignment. 
The  live  stock  commission  business  on  the  southern  mar- 
kets has  not  yet  advanced  to  the  same  stage  of  develop- 
ment as  on  northern  and  western  markets.  When  there 
are  several  commission  firms,  the  particular  one  to  be 
patronized  will  be  largely  a  matter  of  taste.  Some  ship- 
pers occasionally  split  consignments  and  are  thereby 
enabled  to  determine  which  firms  secure  the  best  prices. 
As  soon  as  a  good  firm  is  found  it  is  generally  advisable 
to  stick  to  them  as  long  as  they  maintain  their  reputation, 
for  they  will  be  better  able  to  advise  and  assist  in  mak- 
ing shipments  at  the  most  opportune  time. 


MARKETING  227 

Live  stock  exchange. — On  most  of  the  large  markets, 
especially  those  of  the  West  and  North,  we  find  live  stock 
exchanges,  which  serve  a  most  useful  purpose.  They 
handle  all  the  larger  matters  for  the  better  interests  of 
the  shipper,  stockyards  company,  packing  houses,  com- 
mission men  and  all  interested  parties.  They  decide  such 
questions  as  dockage,  post-mortem  examinations,  freight 
rates,  insurance,  and  yard  regulations  and  charges.  Be- 
fore the  development  of  the  exchange  the  shipper  was 
at  the  mercy  of  the  larger  buyers,  who  made  prices  and 
controlled  the  markets.  The  exchanges  handle  all  dis- 
putes, guarantee  security  of  property,  and  are  beneficial 
in  many  ways.  The  live  stock  exchange  is  a  necessary 
adjunct  to  any  large  market  and  its  usefulness  is  only 
limited  by  the  support  given  it. 

Market  classifications. — Owing  to  the  great  variations 
that  exist  among  the  hogs  that  are  shipped  to  any  mar- 
ket, it  has  been  found  necessary  to  standardize  and 
classify  those  of  certain  qualifications  into  certain  classes 
and  grades.  These  classifications  are  based  to  a  very 
large  extent  upon  weight,  condition,  age,  sex,  quality 
and  utility,  and  we  find  each  class  and  grade  better 
adapted  to  some  particular  commercial  purpose  than  any 
other  class  or  grade. 

Market  classes  and  grades  of  hogs. — Hogs  that  are 
sent  to  the  market  are  classified  into  groups  or  classes 
according  to  the  specific  commercial  purposes  to  which 
they  are  best  adapted.  These  classes  are  numerous  when 
the  market  receipts  are  large.  When  a  small  market  is 
concerned  the  number  of  classes  and  grades  is  small. 
In  order  to  give  some  idea  of  the  extent  of  market  clas- 


228  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

sifications,  a  complete  classification,  such  as  one  might 
expect  to  find  upon  a  large  specialized  market,  is  given : 

1.  Prime  hogs  10.  Heavy  packing 

2.  Good  butcher  11.  Rough  heavy  packing 

3.  Good  butcher  pigs  12.  Throwouts 

4.  Light  pigs  13.  Pigs 

5.  Heavy  rough  hogs  14.  Boars 

6.  Mixed  packing  15.  Stags 

7.  Light  pigs  16.  Government 

8.  Light  light  17.  Cripples 

9.  Heavy  shipping 

These  classes  are  in  turn  divided  into  grades,  which 
indicate  the  degree  of  fitness  of  the  animal  for  the  specific 
commercial  purpose  which  has  determined  its  class.  The 
several  grades  that  may  occur  in  a  specialized  market 
are  from  the  best  to  the  poorest,  as  follows:  Fancy, 
prime,  choice,  good,  medium,  fair,  common,  and  poor  or 
inferior.  Quality,  condition,  age,  sex,  conformation, 
breed,  finish  and  soundness  determine  to  a  large  extent 
the  particular  class  and  grade  into  which  any  hog  or 
group  of  hogs  will  fall. 

Market  classes  flexible. — It  must  not  be  considered 
that  market  classes  and  grades  are  inflexible,  for  no  two 
markets  have  the  same  classification,  and  certainly  all 
kinds,  breeds  and  ages  of  hogs  will  be  shipped  to  both. 
Also,  even  on  the  same  market,  the  various  classes  and 
grades  will  be  made  up  of  different  kinds  of  hogs  on 
different  days,  for  if  there  is  a  demand  for  a  certain  class 
or  grade  of  hogs  and  there  are  none  or  but  few  of  these 
to  be  had,  the  deficiency  will  be  supplied  from  other 
classes  or  grades.  Therefore,  we  must  not  conclude  that 
market  classes  and  grades  of  swine  are  absolute  and  dis- 


MARKETING  229 

tinctive,  because  they  are  subject  to  considerable  flexi- 
bility to  meet  existing  conditions. 

Market  type. — The  term  market  type  is  distinctive  from 
market  classes  or  grades.  Market  type  is  a  term  em- 
ployed by  the  breeder  of  pure-bred  swine  and  by  the 
pork  producer  to  designate  that  class  of  hogs  which  the 
market  desires.  What  the  breeder  and  grower  want  to 
know  is  which  type  is  most  sought  after  that  will  at  the 
same  time  yield  the  greatest  profits,  in  order  that  they 
can  make  their  business  more  profitable  by  directing  their 
energies  and  efforts  toward  producing  that  particular 
type.  The  breeders  will  then  select  animals  which  seem 
to  them  to  approach  most  nearly  the  most  desirable  mar- 
ket type.  The  grower  will  in  turn  be  willing  to  pay  the 
breeder  better  prices  for  breeding  animals  possessing  this 
desirable  market  type  to  a  marked  degree.  The  market 
types  are,  therefore,  much  fewer  than  market  classes, 
and  the  only  type  which  the  breeder  and  grower  desire 
to  eventually  produce  is  the  ideal  market  type. 

Packing  houses. — Of  course  wherever  there  are  large 
stockyards  there  are  also  apt  to  be  packing  houses.  It 
is  to  these  that  by  far  most  of  the  hogs  consigned  to  the 
stockyards  find  their  way.  These  packing  companies 
have  buyers  out  with  orders  to  buy  so  many  hogs  of  one 
kind,  so  many  suited  for  another  purpose,  and  so  on. 
The  prices  are  generally  rather  steady,  and  these  ex- 
perienced buyers  for  the  packing  houses  are  generally 
careful  not  to  pay  more  than  the  market  price.  On  the 
whole,  a  healthy  competition  exists  between  the  different 
packing  firms,  and  the  shipper  gets  from  them  the  ap- 
proximate market  value  of  his  shipment.  The  packing 


230  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

houses  are  the  life  of  the  central  stockyards,  for  it  is  they 
that  create  the  demand.     They  are  most  necessary  and 


Too   large    for   suitable    pork    production    in   the    South. 
Courtesy  S.  H.  Lippincott  of  Maryland. 

developments  of  an  extensive  swine  industry  would  be 
almost  impossible  without  them. 


MARKETING  231 

What  the  butcher  wants. — Not  only  does  the  butcher 
desire  a  carcass  with  as  large  a  percentage  of  edible  meats 
as  possible,  but  he  also  desires  that  as  great  a  percentage 
as  possible  of  the  carcass  be  made  up  of  the  higher-priced 
cuts.  These  cuts  are  located  in  the  hind  part  of  the  hog, 
and  are  made  up  mostly  of  the  ham  and  loin.  It  is  the 
hind  half  of  the  hog  that  makes  money  for  the  butcher 
and  packer,  for  it  is  this  part  that  sells  materially  above 
what  he  paid  for  it.  Therefore,  what  the  butcher  really 
wants  for  the  retail  meat  trade  is  a  high  dressing  hog, 
not  so  fat  that^kk  has  to  be  scaled,  and  with  as  large  a 
proportion  of  the  carcass  weight  in  the  hams  and  loins 
as  is  possible.  A  heavy  ham,  wide  back  and  loin,  with 
straightness  of  top  and  underline,  and  other  character- 
istics indicative  of  capacity  for  the  production  of  high- 
priced  pork  are  sought. 

The  dressing  percentage. — The  dressing  per  cent  of 
a  hog  is  determined  by  dividing  the  dressed  weight  by 
the  live  weight  and  multiplying  by  100.  Since  it  is  the 
carcass  of  the  hogs  we  are  after,  the  dressing  percentage 
becomes  a  very  important  factor.  The  expert  buyer  will 
accurately  estimate  the  dressing  percentage.  The  ques- 
tion of  record  and  average  dressing  percentages  is  of 
interest.  On  southern  markets  average  hogs  will  dress 
around  65  to  70  per  cent.  The  better  class  range  from 
75  to  85  per  cent.  Hogs  on  southern  markets  will  aver- 
age nearly  5  per  cent  less  than  hogs  from  the  Corn  Belt. 
At  one  slaughter  test  held  in  Chicago  in  which  seventy 
head  of  hogs  were  entered  the  highest  dressing  per  cent 
was  90.2.  This  figure  is  exceptional,  of  course. 

Factors  affecting  dressing  per  cent. — All  kinds  of  hogs 
come  to  the  market.  They  will  be  found  to  dress  all  the 


232  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

way  from  50  up  to  85  per  cent,  depending  on  several 
factors.  Among  these  factors  may  be  mentioned,  first 
of  all,  condition.  As  a  rule  the  higher  the  condition  the 
higher  the  dressing  percentage.  Since  the  fat  is  de- 
posited largely  in  and  over  the  musculature,  it  is  quite 
evident  that  the  higher  the  condition  the  greater  will  be 
the  proportion  of  carcass  to  offal  and  waste  matter. 
Quality  is  also  generally  associated  with  a  high  dressing 
per  cent.  Especially  is  quality  of  importance  in  coarse 
hogs  with  large  bones  and  paunchy  middles.  The  butcher 
desires  a  minimum  bone,  just  large  enough  to  bear  the 
weight  of  the  hog's  body  from  the  time  the  hog  is  bought 
until  it  is  on  the  killing  floor.  Next  in  importance  is  the 
paunchiness,  or  the  relative  size  of  belly  compared  with 
the  rest  of  the  body.  The  larger  the  paunch,  regardless 
of  the  cause,  the  less  will  be  the  dressing  percentage. 
Next,  the  seediness  of  old  sows  and  the  staginess  of 
boars  and  stags  will  result  in  an  appreciable  lowering  of 
the  dressing  percentage.  Old  sows  that  have  raised  a 
large  number  of  pigs  generally  have  considerable  waste 
on  their  bellies  that  will  have  to  be  trimmed  off. 

Federal  inspection. — At  the  present  time  in  all  of  our 
larger  packing  plants  federal  inspectors  are  placed  to  see 
that  no  diseased  meats  are  slaughtered  and  that  no 
spoiled  meats  are  placed  on  the  markets.  This  work  was 
started  several  years  ago,  and  the  results  of  the  constant 
care  and  watchfulness  have  greatly  increased  the  quality 
of  the  packing  plant  output.  At  first  the  inspection  was 
objected  to,  but  the  public  and  packers  soon  adjusted 
themselves  to  the  new  conditions,  and  although  there 
is  still  ample  room  for  improvement  the  work  has  pro- 
ceeded most  effectively.  It  is  unfortunate  that  this  in- 


MARKETING 


233 


spection  and  supervision  cannot  be  carried  on  in  even 
the  smaller  plants.  The  packers  usually  invite  federal 
inspection  on  account  of  the  prestige  it  gives  and  be- 
cause the  public  demands  federal  inspected  meats.  For 


Home-packing  products  resulting  from  high  specialization. 

one  plant  to  have  inspection  and  another  not  to  have  it 
gives  the  latter  an  undue  advantage,  because  in  the 
latter  case  the  condemnations  will  be  very  few,  while 
the  profits  of  the  former  will  be  greatly  cut  through  the 
condemnations  by  the  federal  inspectors.  A  more  ex- 
tensive application  of  federal  inspection  is  desirable. 

Home  retail  marketing  of  pork. — The  slaughtering  of 
pork  at  home  not  only  provides  an  ample  supply  for 
home  consumption,  but  by  home  slaughtering  a  means 
is  provided  to  secure  greater  returns  from  the  hogs 
grown.  The  hogs  may  be  slaughtered  and  sold  as  fresh 
pork  to  the  butcher,  or  it  may  be  retailed  out  and  the 


234  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

greatest  returns  are  realized.  Many  southern  farmers 
are  beginning  to  make  a  practice  of  curing  a  surplus  of 
pork,  to  be  sold  later  on  in  the  season,  generally  to  a 
select  retail  trade.  The  hams,  shoulders  and  sides  are 
especially  adapted  for  selling  as  cured  meats.  It  is  very 
often  the  case  that  these  parts  of  the  carcass  will  bring 
as  much  or  more  than  the  entire  hog  would  on  foot,  which 
would  leave  the  head,  ribs,  backbone,  sausage,  lard  and 
other  parts  as  clear  profit  for  the  extra  labor  involved. 
The  home  retail  marketing  of  pork  is  especially  to  be 
recommended  for  the  small  farmer,  and  a  profitable 
method  of  marketing  in  this  manner  may  be  developed 
by  the  more  extensive  producer. 


CHAPTER  X 
PORK 

Pork  as  a  food. — Pork  has  been  in  our  dietary  for  many 
centuries.  It  is  one  of  our  standard  meat  foods.  It  has 
its  advantages  and  disadvantages  in  comparison  with 
other  meats.  It  is  fatter  than  most  meats,  which  under 
some  conditions  would  be  considered  a  disadvantage. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  larger  proportion  of  meat 
to  bone  in  pork  than  in  either  beef  or  mutton.  Likewise, 
the  percentage  of  water  in  pork  is  lower  than  in  these 
other  two  meats  and  the  energy  content  per  pound  is 
greater,  which  are  advantages  not  easily  overcome.  The 
fact  that  in  this  country  we  annually  produce  and  con- 
sume nearly  $1,000,000,000  worth  of  pork  and  pork  prod- 
ucts shows  the  extensiveness  of  its  use  as  a  food. 

Composition  of  pork. — As  a  food  pork  may  be  con- 
sidered as  composed  of  two  materials,  the  edible  part 
and  the  non-edible  or  waste.  The  non-edible  part  con- 
sists of  such  refuse  as  skin,  bone  and  gristle.  The  amount 
of  waste  in  a  piece  of  pork  is  dependent  upon  the  cut 
from  which  it  comes.  The  waste  in  pork  chops  will  run 
from  12  to  24  per  cent,  while  for  ham  it  will  run  from 
8  to  14  per  cent.  The  edible  portion  is  the  portion  in 
which  we  are  primarily  interested.  This  is  made  up 
of  water,  fat,  protein  and  ash.  All  meats  contain  some 
water.  Dry  salt  pork  contains  a  minimum  and  may  have 
as  little  as  4  per  cent  of  water.  On  the  other  hand,  fresh 
pork  may  contain  as  high  as  60  per  cent  moisture.  The 
fat  is  likewise  variable,  and  pork  may  contain  all  the  way 

235 


236 


SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 


from  10  to  95  per  cent.  From  the  standpoint  of  economy 
we  desire  pork  with  as  much  fat  as  possible.  The  pro- 
teins or  nitrogenous  compounds  of  pork  are  very  im- 
portant, as  is  the  case  with  all  meats.  The  amount  of 


Making  pure-bred  Tamworth  pork  on  Westview  Stock  Farm, 
Winston-Salem,  N.  C. 

protein  in  pork  will  vary  from  2  to  20  per  cent.  The 
ash  of  pork  is  of  importance  even  though  present  in  rather 
small  quantities.  On  the  whole,  pork  contains  less  waste 
matter  than  other  foods,  and  the  food  value  is  greater 
than  most  other  meats  on  account  of  its  high  fat  content. 

Pork-slaughtering  industry.  —  The  pork-slaughtering 
industry  of  the  past  on  an  extensive  scale  has  for  the 
most  part  been  confined  to  northern  markets.  The  south- 
ern markets  are,  however,  coming  to  slaughter  more  and 
more  pork  annually.  Practically  all  of  the  slaughtering 


PORK  237 

centers  pattern  after  Chicago  in  so  far  as  is  practical, 
since  this  is  the  largest  pork-packing  center  in  the  world. 
It  may  be  well,  therefore,  to  refer  to  the  industry  as  it 
is  carried  on  there,  where  seven  millions  of  hogs  are 
slaughtered  annually.  It  is  here  that  the  industry  has 
been  carried  to  its  present  high  point  of  specialization. 

Slaughtering. — The  slaughtering  of  hogs  takes  place 
to  a  limited  extent  on  the  farm,  to  a  much  larger  extent 
by  the  local  butcher,  and  to  a  still  greater  extent  by  the 
pork  packer.  The  volume  of  slaughtering  by  some  of 
the  larger  packing  plants  is  enormous.  In  order  to  ac- 
commodate the  volume,  methods  are  employed  which 
insure  rapidity  of  slaughter.  In  these  larger  plants  the 
slaughtering  takes  place  at  the  rate  of  several  per  minute. 
The  usual  plan  is  to  have  a  hoisting  wheel  to  which  the 
hogs  are  shackled  by  a  shackler  with  chains  that  are 
hung  to  the  large  wheel.  This  wheel  revolves  and  ele- 
vates them  and  runs  them  off  onto  the  sticking  rail  or 
bar  automatically  to  the  sticker.  Expert  stickers  can 
stick  as  many  as  ten  head  per  minute.  From  the  sticker 
the  hogs  pass  to  the  scalding  vats  and  automatic  scrap- 
ing machines,  the  scraping  being  finished  by  hand.  They 
are  then  beheaded,  gutted,  split,  washed  down  and  hung 
in  the  cooler. 

Variations  in  carcasses. — Aside  from  differences  in 
weight,  the  carcasses  show  marked  differences  in  form 
as  they  hang  in  the  cooler.  Some  are  wide  and  compact 
showing  high  condition,  while  others  are  long  and  nar- 
row. Great  differences  are  manifested  in  particular  in 
the  region  of  the  ham  and  loin.  In  the  halved  carcasses 
the  various  ratios  between  the  amounts  of  fat  and  lean 


238  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

in  similarly  shaped  carcasses  are  also  quite  noticeable. 
Even  in  those  carcasses  possessing  the  same  degree  of 
condition  there  is  a  marked  tendency  on  the  part  of  some 
to  place  it  on  the  back,  while  others  show  more  of  a 
tendency  to  deposit  it  on  the  inside  of  the  ribs  and  around 
the  kidneys.  In  the  cut  carcasses  there  is  also  marked 
differences  in  the  degree  of  marbling,  even  when  the 
quantity  of  fat  on  the  back  is  the  same.  The  color  of 
both  the  fat  and  the  lean  presents  marked  contrasts.  The 
grain  of  the  meat,  the  quality  and  size  of  the  bone,  and 
the  degree  of  moisture  presented  on  the  cut  surface  are 
other  respects  in  which  the  carcasses  will  be  found  to 
differ  greatly.  In  some  carcasses,  especially  where  the 
hog  is  old  and  fat,  the  meat  will  separate  from  the  bones 
if  the  cooling  has  not  been  begun  soon  enough  after 
slaughter;  or,  if  the  carcass  has  not  been  cooled  to  a 
sufficiently  low  temperature,  the  same  result  may  be  seen. 

Classification  of  hog  carcasses. — This  lack  of  uni- 
formity necessitates  a  classification  where  the  slaughter- 
ing is  carried  on  on  a  sufficiently  extensive  scale  to  justify 
specialization.  The  butcher  and  packer  are,  of  course, 
primarily  interested  in  these  variations,  as  they  are  used 
in  determining  the  specific  use  for  which  the  carcass  is 
best  suited.  The  different  ways  in  which  carcasses  may 
differ  are  in  age,  size,  condition,  color  of  lean,  shape, 
thickness  of  fleshing,  thickness  of  external  fat,  distribu- 
tion of  fat,  color  of  fat,  grain  and  texture  of  meat,  hard- 
ness and  size  of  bone  and  in  soundness  and  quality.  In 
the  large  packing  houses  the  carcasses  are  placed  in  va- 
rious classes  dependent  upon  the  above  qualities.  The 
most  complete  classification  that  has  been  made  of  hog 
carcasses  is  that  by  Hall  reported  in  Bulletin  147  of  the 


PORK  239 

Illinois  Station.  In  this,  dressed  hogs  are  divided  into 
six  classes — smooth,  heavy  hogs,  butcher  hogs,  packing 
hogs,  bacon  hogs,  shippers  and  pigs.  Packing  hogs  are 
further  graded  into  heavy,  medium  and  light,  and  bacon 
hogs  are  further  divided  into  choice,  good  and  common. 
The  classification  is  thus  based  upon  the  use  to  which 
the  carcass  is  best  adapted.  It  requires  an  expert  to 
properly  classify  carcasses.  This  classification  is,  of 
course,  more  or  less  arbitrary  and  flexible,  and  if  there 
is  a  shortage  of  a  certain  class  the  demand  will  be  met 
from  other  classes  having  similar  carcasses. 

Qualifications  of  a  good  carcass. — The  qualifications 
of  a  good  carcass  will  largely  depend  upon  the  kind  of  a 
carcass  or  class  and  the  use  to  which  it  is  to  be  put. 
Above  all,  an  extra  development  is  sought  in  those  parts 
that  are  of  greatest  value.  The  thickness  and  smooth- 
ness of  outside  fat  are  especially  essential.  The  qualities 
of  the  lean  meat  are  important.  This  should  be  abun- 
dant in  quantity  and  of  fine  grain  and  proper  color.  The 
bones  should  be  small  and  fine.  Especially  should  there 
be  a  high  development  of  ham  and  loin.  These  two  parts 
command  better  prices  than  the  rest  of  the  hog  because 
there  is  less  waste  in  them,  and  they  possess  to  a  marked 
degree  the  required  tenderness,  marbling  and  palata- 
bility,  and  present  an  attractive  appearance  on  the  block. 
Experimental  evidence  has  shown  that  there  is  but  little 
difference  in  the  nutritive  value  of  meats  from  different 
parts  of  the  carcass.  There  are  differences  in  palata- 
bility  and  proportion  of  waste  in  preparing  for  the  table. 
It  is  the  proportion  of  higher-priced  cuts  or  the  form  of 
the  carcass  that  makes  the  greatest  difference  in  value. 
Therefore,  the  aim  of  the  producer  of  pork  should  be  to 


I 


240  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

grow  those  carcasses  which  will  retail  for  the  largest 
figures,  for  in  the  long  run  they  will  prove  the  most 
profitable. 

Pork  cuts. — When  hogs  are  killed  in  the  larger  packing 
houses  they  may  be  sold  either  in  the  carcass  or  cut  up. 
When  cut  up  the  regulation  cuts  and  parts  of  the  hog's 
carcass  are  the  hams,  sides,  bellies,  backs,  shoulders, 
loins,  butts  and  plates,  miscellaneous  and  lard.  These 
may  be  graded  to  some  extent  to  meet  the  demands  of 
the  trade.  The  grading  of  pork  cuts  is  more  or  less  diffi- 
cult owing  to  the  fact  that  the  grading  is  complicated  by 
the  style  of  cutting  and  methods  of  packing  required  for 
different  classes  of  trade. 

The  offal. — With  the  high  degree  of  specialization  that 
comes  with  the  development  of  a  great  industry  we  find 
that  some  use  is  made  of  everything  and  that  nothing 
is  wasted.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  pork-packing 
industry.  Everything  that  cannot  be  classed  as  pork 
to  be  eaten  as  food  is  used  in  some  manner.  The  blood 
may  go  for  the  manufacture  of  dried  blood  to  be  used  as 
a  stock  feed.  From  the  small  scraps  of  meat  and  other 
parts  unfit  for  human  food  digester  tankage  is  made  as 
a  feed  for  swine.  A  great  many  of  the  waste  parts  are 
used  in  the  arts  and  trades.  Soap  stock  is  made  from  the 
fat  rendered  in  the  making  of  digester  tankage  and>  meat 
meal  and  from  the  making  of  fertilizers.  Fertilizers  are 
made  from  all  of  the  contents  of  the  alimentary  tract  and 
from  the  inedible  organs.  The  stomachs  and  bladders 
may  be  used  for  packages  for  use  in  the  various  trades. 
The  casings  are  sometimes  used  in  the  packing  of  sau- 
sages. It  is  largely  on  account  of  their  ability  to  make 


242  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

profitable  use  of  all  parts  of  the  hog  that  the  larger 
specialized  packing  interests  are  able  to  compete  so  suc- 
cessfully with  the  small  butcher. 

Pork  for  home  use. — We  are  apt  to  consider  that  we 
can  best  sell  our  hogs  on  foot  and  then  buy  our  required 
pork  as  we  need  it,  but  such  is  not  economy.  The 
slaughtering  and  curing  of  pork  for  home  use  has  many 
advantages  to  commend  it.  One  cannot  only  save  money 
by  it,  but  a  better  pork  supply  is  to  be  had.  Dry,  hard 
and  tasteless  meats  are  not  wanted.  Juicy,  sweet  and 
tender  meats  can  be  had  if  some  care  is  taken  in  the 
methods  employed  in  slaughtering,  dressing,  curing  and 
preserving.  The  aim  of  the  farmer  should  be  not  only  to 
supply  enough  pork  for  home  consumption,  but  to  supply 
a  surplus  to  be  sold  in  case  it  is  not  needed. 

Co-operative  slaughtering. — The  extra  force  required 
to  do  slaughtering  and  butchering  can  best  be  overcome 
by  co-operation  among  a  few  farmers  in  a  community. 
By  this  method  five  or  six  farmers  of  a  community  will 
form  a  butchers'  club  and  go  from  one  farm  to  the  other 
and  do  the  slaughtering.  Each  one  becomes  more  or 
less  expert  and  adept  at  some  particular  phase  of  the 
work,  which  means  added  efficiency.  One  man  may  in 
this  way  become  quite  expert  at  scalding  and  scraping, 
another  may  become  expert  at  dressing,  and  still  another 
at  cutting  up,  another  at  trimming,  and  another  at  sau- 
sage making  and  so  on.  An  added  advantage  that  comes 
from  such  an  association  is  that  fresh  pork  may  thus  be 
had  at  almost  all  seasons  of  the  year.  The  plan  would 
be  to  kill  a  hog  turn  about  during  the  warmer  weather 
and  rotate  the  parts  to  the  members  of  the  association. 


PORK  243 

This  plan  is  already  in  operation  and  is  working  quite 
successfully  in  some  sections. 

Kind  of  hogs  to  butcher. — Under  most  circumstances 
one  will  not  have  an  opportunity  to  exercise  any  great 
degree  of  selection  in  picking  out  animals  for  slaughter. 
He  should  know,  however,  those  animals  best  suited  for 
the  making  of  home-cured  pork  and  should  strive  to  pro- 
duce such  animals.  The  hog,  to  be  ideal,  must  have 
sufficient  fat  to  make  the  meat  palatable  and  juicy.  He 
must  not,  however,  have  so  much  fat  that  it  will  make 
the  meat  unsavory.  The  exact  amount  to  be  desired  will 
be  largely  a  matter  of  taste.  Also,  it  must  be  recognized 
that  good  pork  cannot  be  made  unless  the  animal 
is  in  perfect  health.  The  hog  must  be  of  the  right  age 
and  breeding.  Hogs  that  have  been  bred  for  pork  pro- 
duction for  decades  are  more  apt  to  make  better  pork 
than  the  scrub  without  improved  breeding.  Also,  only 
young  animals  should  be  used.  The  best  meats  are  not 
to  be  had  from  animals  that  are  old.  There  are  also  other 
precautions  to  be  taken  prior  to  slaughter.  Feed  should 
be  withheld  for  a  period  of  twenty-four  hours.  The 
hogs  should  be  killed  with  as  little  excitement  as  possible, 
for  a  little  nervousness  tends  to  bring  on  a  rise  in  tem- 
perature, with  its  resultant  bad  effects  on  the  keeping 
quality,  taste  and  color  of  the  meat. 

Proper  time  to  butcher. — In  a  great  portion  of  the 
South  where  coolers  are  not  to  be  had  the  most  suitable 
time  for  butchering  will  depend  to  a  considerable  extent 
upon  the  weather  conditions.  Rainy  and  moist  weather 
is  to  be  avoided.  Clear,  crisp,  cool  weather  around  freez- 
ing is  about  the  best.  Most  farmers  prefer  to  kill  in  the 


244  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

forenoon,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  generally  a  full  day's 
work  to  do  the  butchering  properly.  Where  one  or  two 
hogs  are  to  be  killed,  the  afternoon  may  be  preferred,  as 
the  carcass  will  be  allowed  to  cool  overnight  without 
passing  through  the  heat  of  the  day.  Where  the  meat 
is  not  to  be  cured,  but  is  to  be  disposed  of  as  fresh  pork, 
any  weather  is  suitable. 

Killing  the  hogs. — In  some  sections  it  is  not  custom- 
ary to  stun  the  hogs  before  sticking,  but  owing  to  the 
excitement  resulting  from  holding  while  sticking,  it  is 
probably  the  best  plan  to  stun  in  some  way.  Many  prefer 
to  strike  in  the  forehead  with  an  ax,  but  more  satisfactory 
results  may  be  secured  by  shooting  with  a  small-calibered 
rifle,  especially  if  the  hogs  are  fat.  Regardless  of  whether 
the  hog  is  stunned  or  not,  the  essentials  of  sticking  are 
the  same.  A  narrow  straight-bladed  knife  at  least  8 
inches  long  should  be  used.  This  is  inserted  in  the  hog's 
throat  just  in  front  of  the  breastbone,  directed  back- 
wards toward  the  center  of  the  body  directly  in  line  with 
the  backbone.  After  penetrating  to  a  depth  of  6  or  8 
inches,  it  is  turned  sideways,  given  a  side  thrust  and 
withdrawn.  To  give  the  best  results  it  should  be  sharp 
on  both  sides  of  the  point.  If  the  sticking  is  done  prop- 
erly the  blood  will  come  out  in  spurts.  The  sticking 
should  pierce  the  heart  or  the  aorta,  the  main  artery  lead- 
ing from  the  heart.  A  novice  must  be  careful  not  to  deviate 
far  from  the  median  line  in  inserting  the  sticking  knife, 
for  the  blade  may  run  up  between  the  shoulder  and  ribs, 
rendering  the  cut  unfit  for  curing. 

Scalding. — As  soon  as  the  hog  is  dead  and  the  blood 
has  stopped  flowing  the  hog  should  be  scalded  without 


PORK  245 

undue  delay.  This  means  that  the  water  should  be  hot 
before  the  hog  is  killed.  There  is  usually  more  danger 
of  having  the  water  too  hot  than  too  cold.  If  too  hot, 
the  hair  will  be  set.  More  time  is  required  with  water 
not  quite  so  hot,  but  the  lessened  dangers  more  than  con- 
pensate  for  the  small  loss  in  time.  Unless  one  is  expert 
a  thermometer  should  be  used  to  determine  the  tem- 
perature of  the  water.  At  the .  time  the  hog  is  being 
scalded  the  water  should  be  between  150  and  175  degrees. 
Too  much  time  is  required  below  150  degrees,  and  there 
is  too  much  danger  of  setting  the  hair  above  175  degrees. 
Between  these  temperatures  from  40  to  80  seconds  will 
be  required  to  properly  scald,  the  longer  time  being  re- 
quired with  the  lower  temperature.  While  in  the  water 
the  hog  should  be  kept  moving  constantly  to  prevent 
cooking  the  skin.  It  is  best  to  remove  the  hog  and  try 
the  hair  from  time  to  time.  Some  use  wood  ashes  in  the 
water  to  make  the  scurf  loosen,  and  others  use  soft  soap 
and  lye  for  the  same  purpose.  By  using  these  the  skin 
is  easier  cleaned. 

Scraping. — As  soon  as  the  hog  is  scalded  he  may  be 
removed  to  a  platform  to  be  scraped.  The  head  and  feet 
are  generally  cleaned  first.  A  knife  is  best  for  these  parts. 
The  feet  and  legs  can  be  cleaned  with  the  hands  by 
twisting  against  the  hair,  if  these  parts  are  properly 
scalded.  The  longer  hair  of  the  body  can  be  removed 
with  the  hands,  and  the  shorter  hair  and  scurf  can  best 
be  scraped  off  with  a  corn  knife,  a  hog  scraper,  or  dull 
butcher  knife.  After  scraping  off  all  the  hair  the  entire 
carcass  should  be  shaved  with  a  sharp  butcher  knife, 
after  washing  with  hot  water.  The  hog  is  now  ready  to 
be  hoisted.  The  gambrel  cords  are  raised  and  the  gam- 


246  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

brel  stick  inserted  and  the  hog  hoisted,  after  which  those  parts 
not  properly  cleaned  may  be  gone  over  again.  The  carcass 
is  then  washed  off  with  cold  water  and  is  ready  for  dressing. 

Dressing. — The  carcasses  should  not  be  allowed  to 
hang  too  long  before  they  are  gutted.  To  do  this  the 
hog  is  first  split  between  the  hind  legs,  separating  the 
pubic  bones  with  a  knife.  The  cut  is  then  continued 
down  the  median  line  of  the  abdomen  and  chest  and 
through  the  breastbone  to  the  sticking  place  in  the  neck. 
The  cutting  through  of  the  breastbone  may  require  an 
ax  if  the  hog  is  of  any  size.  The  next  operation  is  to 
return  to  the  bung  or  rectum  and  cut  around  it  and  carry 
it  on  down,  cutting  supporting  cords  where  necessary. 
This  permits  the  stomach  and  intestines  to  fall  out.  The 
gall  bladder  can  then  be  sliced  off  the  liver.  The  artery 
should  be  cut  that  runs  down  the  backbone,  the  dia- 
phragm should  be  cut  out  around  the  wall  of  the  body, 
and  the  heart,  lungs,  gullet  and  tongue  removed  with  the 
rest  of  the  offal.  The  mouth  of  the  hog  can  be  propped 
open  with  a  block  of  wood  and  the  whole  carcass  washed 
down  several  times.  The  leaf  lard  and  kidney  fat  can 
then  be  removed  if  the  weather  is  warm.  If  the  carcass 
is  large,  it  had  best  be  split  down  the  center  by  sawing 
after  removing  the  head.  The  carcass  should  then  be 
allowed  to  hang  over  until  early  the  next  day,  when  it  is 
ready  to  be  cut  up  and  started  curing,  if  not  to  be  dis- 
posed of  as  fresh  pork.  If  the  weather  is  cold  it  may  be 
allowed  to  hang  longer,  but  usually  the  sooner  the  cur- 
ing process  starts  the  better. 

Cutting  up  the  carcass.-— After  the  carcass  has  cooled 
overnight  it  should  be  taken  down  and  cut  up.  To  do 


248 


SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 


this  properly  requires  a  good  sharp  butcher  knife,  a  long 
butcher  knife,  a  saw,  a  sharp  chop  ax,  and  a  solid  table. 
If  not  already  split  the  head  may  be  removed  and  the 
carcass  split  while  still  hanging,  if  it 
is  large.  If  not  split  and  small,  the 
best  way  is  to  place  the  carcass  on  the 
table  and  remove  the  head  by  cutting 
off  an  inch  back  of  the  ears.  The 
shoulders  are  removed  by  cutting  be- 
tween the  fourth  and  fifth  ribs,  and  the 
hams  are  cut  off  about  twro  inches  in 
front  of  the  pelvic  bone.  The  hams 
and  shoulders  are  then  split  apart,  the 
feet  removed  and  trimmed,  the  middle 
piece  split  and  the  leaf  fat  removed 
with  the  kidneys. 

Cuts  of  pork. — There  are  several 
common  methods  of  cutting  up  pork, 
especially  as  regards  the  middle  part 
of  the  body.  Nearly  everyone  cuts  off 
the  head,  the  shoulders  and  the  hams 
about  the  same.  The  middle  part  may 
be  divided  into  backbone,  ribs  and 
sides,  if  to  be  cured,  or,  if  to  be  sold 
fresh,  it  may  be  cut  so  as  to  secure  a 
loin,  from  which  pork  chops  are  ob- 
tained, leaving  the  ribs  and  sides ;  in 


Showing  the  usu- 
al method  of  cut- 
ting the  side  into 
(1)  ham,  (2) 
belly,  (3)  back, 
and  (4)  shoulder. 


either  case  the  sides  may  be  divided  into  the  middle  cut 
and  belly.  On  the  farm  the  most  common  method  where 
the  meat  is  to  be  cured  is  to  have  the  following  cuts : 
Head,  shoulders,  hams,  side,  ribs,  backbone,  leaf  lard 
and  trimmings.  In  addition  to  the  above,  one  also  has 
the  feet,  heart  and  liver. 


PORK  249 

Trimming  the  cuts. — The  method  of  trimming  of  the 
several  cuts  depends  a  great  deal  upon  custom.  The  best 
way  is  to  split  the  head  in  quarters,  removing  the  jowl 
for  salting.  The  shoulder  is  trimmed  by  cutting  out  the 
ribs  and  neck  bone,  trimming  down  to  the  top  of  the 
shoulder  blade,  trimming  off  all  loose  bloody  meat  and 
removing  the  foot  above  the  knee  joint.  The  middles 
may  be  trimmed  in  several  ways.  The  backbone  is  gen- 
erally used  for  fresh  pork,  the  loin  removed,  the  ribs  cut 
out  as  close  as  possible,  and  the  side  stripped  lengthwise 
into  two  or  three  pieces,  depending  on  the  size  of  the 
hog  and  the  use  to  be  made  of  it.  The  hams  are  trimmed 
by  removing  the  feet  about  2  inches  above  the  hock 
joint  and  by  rounding  off  the  corners  and  edges.  All 
lean  trimmings  are  used  for  the  making  of  sausage  and 
the  fat  for  lard.  The  feet,  ears  and  snout  may  be  pickled. 
The  several  cuts  may  be  used  for  either  fresh  pork  or 
for  curing,  as  may  be  desired. 

Value  of  the  cuts. — The  cuts  coming  from  the  several 
parts  of  the  hog  are  of  different  values  because  some  are 
in  greater  demand  than  others.  These  values  are  based 
upon  convenience  in  cooking,  tenderness,  flavor  and 
general  appearance,  and  not  so  much  upon  their  nutritive 
values.  The  comparative  values  fixed  by  the  public  for 
the  different  parts  of  the  carcass  are  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing figures  and  tables.  A  side  of  pork  is  shown  with 
the  cuts  most  commonly  made  and  the  location  of  these 
cuts  on  the  live  hog  is  shown  by  the  diagram.  The  tables 
give  the  name,  value  per  pound,  average  value  in  per- 
centage of  the  whole  carcass  and  average  value  in  weight 
of  the  whole  carcass.  The  value  of  the  cuts  depends  to 
a  large  extent  upon  the  method  of  cutting.  The  two 


250 


SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 


recognized  methods  are  the  usual  farm  cut,  and  the  other 
is  the  usual  market  or  retail  cut. 

In  this  table  the  values  given  prevailed  at  several  points 
when  live  fat  hogs  were  selling  at  8  cents  per  pound.  On 
this  basis  a  200-pound  hog  would  bring  $16.  From  the 
table  it  is  seen  that  a  farmer  can  kill  his  hogs  and  have 
as  clear  money  on  each  hog  the  amounts  brought  by  the 
parts  other  than  the  hams,  shoulders  and  bacon  or  side 
meat,  for  these  three  parts  will  on  the  average  bring 
cured  as  much  as  the  entire  hog  on  foot.  These  figures 
also  show  a  slight  advantage  in  method  of  cutting  of  the 
usual  retail  market  cut  as  compared  with  the  method 
used  on  the  farm.  In  this  table  both  methods  of  cutting 
are  included.  The  basis  for  comparison  is  made  on  a  200- 
pound  hog  dressing  80  per  cent,  yielding  a  160-pound  carcass. 
Farm  cuts  Weight  Per  cent  Av.  value  Value  of 


Head    16 

Shoulders   25 

Hams 30 

Sides    44 

Ribs    6 

Backbone    20 

Leaf  lard 10 

Sausage  5 

Feet   4 

Total    160 

Market  cuts 

Head    16 

Shoulders 26 

Loin 36 

Ham 32 

Middle . 15 

Belly    15 

Ribs    6 

Leaf  lard 10 

Feet   4 


of  carcass 

p.  Ib.  in 

cuts 

weight 

cents 

10 

6.5 

$1.04 

16 

17.5 

4.37 

19 

21.0 

6.30 

27 

15.0 

6.60 

4 

13.0 

0.78 

12 

13.0 

2.60 

6 

15.0 

1.50 

3 

15.0 

0.75 

3 

5.0 

0.20 

100 

10 

16 

23 

20 

9 

9 

4 


6.5 
17.5 
16.0 
21.0 
15.0 
12.5 
13.0 
15.0 

5.0 


$24.14 

$1.04 
4.55 
5.76 
6.72 
2.25 
1.87 
0.78 
1.50 
0.20 


Total 


160 


100 


$24.67 


PORK  251 

Keeping  fresh  pork. — In  the  South  we  are  unable  to 
keep  fresh  pork  as  they  do  in  colder  climates,  where 
carcasses  and  cuts  are  frequently  hung  in  outbuildings 
to  freeze,  and  from  which  fresh  pork  is  taken  as  needed. 
This  can  be  done  only  to  a  very  limited  extent  in  the 
South.  We  must  therefore  look  to  other  means  of  keeping 
fresh  pork.  The  most  common  method  is  artificial  cold 
or  cold  storage.  This  preserves  the  pork  in  the  most 
palatable  and  nutritious  form.  For  keeping  pork  fresh, 
a  temperature  of  40  degrees  or  below  should  be  main- 
tained. At  this  temperature,  with  good  ventilation,  fresh 
pork  cuts  can  be  safely  kept  for  a  week  or  ten  days. 
Dampness  is  especially  to  be  avoided  in  the  refrigerator. 
Ice  houses  of  proper  construction  may  also  be  used  to 
advantage  in  the  keeping  of  fresh  pork.  Another  method 
that  is  employed  by  some  is  partial  cooking.  By  this 
method  the  pork  chops  or  Icin  or  sausages  are  partially 
cooked,  packed  down  in  jars  and  hot  melted  lard  poured 
over  the  whole.  The  packed  jars  are  then  kept  in  a  dark 
cool  cellar.  Pork  preserved  in  this  manner  is  not  as  good 
as  freshly  cooked  fresh  pork,  but  the  method  has  several 
advantages  to  commend  it.  It  is  applicable  to  all  parts 
of  the  South  and  may  be  employed  where  cold  storage 
is  not  available.  Another  method  used  to  a  limited  ex- 
tent to  preserve  fresh  pork  for  a  short  time  is  to  pack  it 
in  salt. 

Curing  pork  on  the  farm. — When  a  man  raises  hogs 
he  should  by  all  means  cure  sufficient  pork  to  meet  the 
needs  of  his  family,  and  any  additional,  which  he  may 
cure,  can  always  be  disposed  of  at  a  good  profit.  There 
is  and  always  will  be  a  ready  market  for  home-cured 
pork  products,  and  but  few  farmers  will  meet  with  any 


252  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

difficulty  in  finding  regular  customers  for  their  cured 
pork.  To  properly  cure  meats  requires  considerable 
work,  and  it  is  something  at  which  considerable  skill  can 
be  developed.  The  aim  should  be  to  produce  only  the 
best  cured  pork,  whether  it  is  to  be  used  for  home  con- 
sumption or  for  sale.  Juicy,  savory,  nicely  put  up  cured 
pork  will  always  command  a  good  figure,  and  the  com- 
mon, dry,  hard,  tasteless,  salty,  roughly  trimmed  and 
poorly  cured  pork  will  never  prove  very  profitable. 

Vessels  for  curing.  —  A  clean  barrel  or  cask  is  good  to 
pickle  pork  in.  The  only  essentials  for  a  suitable  vessel 
are  t^'.t  it  be  clean,  free  from  bad  odors,  tight  and  large 
,  vo  hold  the  meat. 


Preservatives.  —  The  more  common  preservatives  used 
are  sugar,  salt  and  saltpeter.  These  are  all  that  are 
necessary.  Others,  such  as  borax  and  salicylic  acid, 
are  used  sometimes,  but  the  use  of  such  preservatives  is 
probably  dangerous  for  those  who  eat  the  meat.  The 
common  preservatives  are  not  poisonous,  but  effect  pres- 
ervation by  the  withdrawal  of  moisture  and  by  osmotic 
action,  commonly  termed  astringent  action.  The  sugar 
itself  acts  somewhat  as  a  preservative,  but  its  main  func- 
tion is  the  addition  of  a  sweet  flavor.  In  warm  weather 
baking  soda  can  be  used  in  the  brine  to  keep  it  sweet 
without  danger  of  injurious  effects. 

Brine  vs.  dry  curing.  —  There  are  two  general  methods 
employed  in  the  curing  of  pork.  One  of  these  is  the 
common  dry  curing  and  the  other  is  brine  curing.  In 
most  sections  the  dry-curing  method  is  employed,  while 
in  other  sections  the  brine  method  is  used  more  exten- 
sively. The  method  to  be  recommended  will  depend  to 


PORK  /    253 

a  large  extent  upon  conditions.    The  brine  curing  usually 
gives  the  best  results. 

Dry  curing. — When  pork  is  dry  cured  more  work  is 
involved,  although  the  actual  expense  is  often  much  less. 
Each  piece  of  meat  must  be  rubbed  over  several  times 
with  the  dry  salt  mixture.  The  most  usual  plan  is  to 
use  6  pounds  of  salt,  2  pounds  of  sugar,  2  ounces  of  salt- 
peter, thoroughly  mixed,  to  every  100  pounds  of  pork. 
The  meat  is  rubbed  once  every  four  days  with  a  fourth 
of  the  mixture.  After  each  rubbing  it  is  repacked  into 
a  tight  box  or  barrel.  After  it  has  stayed  in  the  cure  for 
a  week  after  the  last  rubbing  it  may  then  be  taken  out, 
brushed  off  and  hung  up  for  smoking,  if  it  is  to  be  smoked. 
Pork  will  not  dry  cure  well  if  the  place  is  too  hot  and 
dry,  a  cool,  moist  place  being  much  more  desirable. 

Brine  curing. — The  only  thing  necessary  is  to  pack  the 
cooled  meat  into  a  clean  barrel  and  pour  over  it  a  prop- 
erly prepared  brine.  This  gives  better  protection  to  the 
meat  from  insects  and  rodents.  Of  course,  the  brine  will 
have  to  be  watched  carefully,  and  if  it  shows  signs  of  be- 
coming ropy  it  should  be  either  reboiled  or  new  brine 
should  be  made.  For  proper  brine  curing  of  pork  a  cool, 
damp  cellar  is  best.  Any  part  of  the  carcass  may  be 
brine  cured,  but  ordinarily  fat  backs  and  middlings  cut 
into  strips  or  6-inch  squares  are  more  commonly  used. 

The  time  the  meat  is  to  remain  in  the  brine  will  de- 
pend on  several  factors,  the  principal  one  being  the  size 
of  the  pieces  of  meat.  Smaller  pieces  should  stay  not 
longer  than  six  weeks,  while  larger  pieces  may  stay  eight 
weeks  or  longer  without  becoming  too  salty.  If  the 
brine  is  not  too  strong  the  cuts  can  be  left  in  the  brine 


254  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

until  ready  for  using,  but  the  best  plan  is  to  remove 
them  after  they  have  been  properly  cured,  wash  them 
off,  hang  and  smoke,  and  wrap  them  for  proper  keeping. 
This  method,  if  properly  carried  out,  produces  a  juicy 
sweet  meat  with  the  desired  flavor 

The  brine. — There  are  many  formulas  in  use  for  mak- 
ing brine.  The  old  standard  recipe  for  sugar  curing,  of 
which  there  are  many  modifications,  is  made  up  for  every 
100  pounds  of  pork  to  be  cured,  of  8  pounds  of  salt,  2 
pounds  of  sugar  and  2  ounces  of  saltpeter  dissolved  in 
4  gallons  of  boiling  water.  To  this  mixture  some  prefer 
to  add  a  little  seasoning,  such  as  cayenne  pepper  or  other 
spices.  This  brine  should  be  made  up  the  day  before  it 
is  to  be  used,  so  that  it  will  be  cool  when  placed  on  the 
meat.  After  putting  the  brine  on  the  meat  it  should 
be  examined  every  few  days,  especially  in  warm  weather, 
and  it  should  be  reheated  if  signs  of  ropiness  or  fermenta- 
tions appear.  Sometimes  the  fermentation  can  be 
checked  by  the  addition  of  a  small  amount  of  common 
baking  soda. 

Recipes  for  curing  pork. — Most  recipes  are  modifica- 
tions in  some  way  of  the  sugar  or  plain  salt  method. 
Many  of  these  variations  consist  essentially  in  the  ad- 
dition of  flavors  and  spices,  such  as  cayenne  pepper,  black 
pepper  berries,  allspice  berries  and  molasses.  Virginia 
has  been  noted  many  years  for  its  hams  of  fine  flavor. 
While  there  are  many  recipes  used  in  the  several  parts 
of  the  State,  one  that  has  been  used  extensively  and  has 
met  with  much  favor  calls  for  a  brine  made  up  as  fol- 
lows: For  every  100  pounds  of  pork,  8  pounds  of  salt, 
2J^>  pounds  of  brown  sugar,  1  quart  of  sugar  cane  mo- 


PORK  255 

lasses,  2  ounces  of  baking  soda  and  1  ounce  of  saltpeter 
dissolved  in  5  gallons  of  soft  water.  The  meat  is  cut  up 
and  packed  into  the  barrel  in  the  usual  manner  with  the 
skin  side  down.  After  the  brine  has  cooled  it  is  poured 
over  the  meat  and  allowed  to  stand  for  about  six  weeks, 
when  it  is  taken  out  and  smoked,  if  it  is  to  be  smoked, 
or  it  may  be  left  in  the  brine  and  used  as  desired. 

Another  recipe  that  has  been  given  some  considerable 
attention  and  prominence  is  what  is  known  as  the  Ashland 
cure,  which  gives  the  famous  Ashland  hams.  In  this  3^ 
pounds  of  saltpeter  are  used  for  every  ten  hams  of  mod- 
erate size.  This  is  rubbed  into  the  meat  thoroughly  and 
the  meat  is  packed  down  in  a  tight  box  or  barrel  for  three 
weeks.  The  meat  is  then  taken  up  and  repacked  in  a 
tight  barrel  after  brushing  off  most  of  the  cure  mixture, 
covered  for  two  weeks  with  a  brine  strong  enough  to  float 
an  egg,  after  which  it  is  taken  out,  dried,  rubbed  with 
fine  salt  and  hung  up  to  smoke,  after  which  it  is  care- 
fully wrapped  and  treated  to  hold  the  moisture.  Both 
of  these  methods  yield  cured  pork,  especially  hams,  of  a 
very  superior  sort.  The  two  methods  yield  a  slightly 
different  kind  of  ham.  The  first  described  recipe  yields 
a  more  juicy  ham  paler  in  color,  while  the  latter  method 
gives  a  ham  higher  in  color,  but  not  quite  so  juicy. 

Smoking. — The  smoking  process  aids  in  the  preserva- 
tion of  pork  through  the  creosote  absorbed,  which  also 
protects  the  meat  from  insects  to  some  extent.  The 
flavor  is  what  is  sought  after  in  connection  with  smoking, 
hence  more  attention  should  be  given  to  this  point.  The 
flavor  is  dependent  to  a  large  extent  upon  the  wood  or 
material  burned  in  the  smoking.  Pines  and  resinous 
woods  should  never  be  used  because  of  the  bad  flavor 


PORK  257 

they   impart.     Green   hickory   or   maple,   corncobs   and 
cottonseed  are  the  more  commonly  used  materials. 

The  pieces  to  be  smoked  are  taken  from  the  brine  or 
dry  cure  and  hung  up  to  drip  for  a  couple  of  days.  Any 
loose  salt  on  the  surface  should  be  brushed  off  with  a 
stiff  brush.  The  cuts  should  then  be  hung  in  the  smoke- 
house so  that  no  two  pieces  touch.  The  fire  may  then  -be 
started,  using  the  materials  as  suggested  above.  A  very 
small  slow  fire  is  started,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  see 
that  at  no  time  the  fire  gets  too  hot,  and  to  see  that  there 
is  ventilation  at  the  top  to  keep  from  cooking  or  over- 
heating the  pieces  hung  in  the  top.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  do  the  smoking  all  at  once.  It  is  best  to  let  the  smok- 
ing cover  a  period  of  two  or  three  weeks,  starting  the 
fire  up  every  two  or  three  days  and  continuing  until  the 
meat  is  of  the  desired  color. 

Smokehouses. — Any  tight  house  with  a  ventilator  in 
the  top  can  be  used  to  smoke  meat  in.  Every  farm  should 
have  a  suitable  smokehouse.  These  can  be  constructed 
very  cheaply  from  rough  lumber,  and  they  will -soon  re- 
pay for  themselves  in  better  meat.  In  building  smoke- 
houses the  most  modern  plans  call  for  the  fireplace  out- 
side with  means  of  conducting  the  smoke  in.  This  elimi- 
nates overheating  and  dangers  from  fires,  and  the  work 
can  be  made  a  little  lighter. 

Sacking  and  keeping. — After  meats  are  smoked  they 
may  be  kept  hanging  in  the  smokehouse  for  a  short  time, 
if  the  house  is  kept  dark  and  dry.  If  the  meat  is  to  be 
kept  for  any  length  of  time  it  should  be  covered.  In 
nearly  every  section  skippers  make  it  necessary  for  extra 
precautions  to  be  taken.-  To  properly  prepare  meat  for 


258  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

keeping,  take  down  after  cooling,  wipe  it  off  thoroughly, 
and  apply  with  a  brush  a  coating  composed  of  molasses 
and  black  pepper,  nine  parts  of  molasses  and  one  part 
black  pepper.  After  this  is  applied  each  piece  should  be 
wrapped  carefully  with  wrapping  paper  and  inclosed  in 
either  a  heavy  muslin  sack  or  else  in  a  paper  sack,  such 
as  a  meal  or  flour  sack.  After  the  sack  is  thoroughly  and 
securely  tied  with  a  string  left  for  hanging,  the  whole 
should  be  dipped  into  a  baking  pan  containing  the  yellow 
wash  that  is  sometimes  used  for  this  purpose.  This  wash 
consists  of  50  parts  of  powdered  barytes,  1  part  each  of 
glue  and  lead  chromate,  and  5  parts  of  flour.  This  is 
prepared  by  first  making  a  thin  paste  of  the  flour,  adding 
the  glue  and  dissolved  chromate,  and  finally  by  stirring 
slowly  in  the  barytes.  The  entire  package  is  covered 
with  this  wash  and  hung  in  a  cool  dark  place  to  stay 
until  used.  Meat  properly  put  up  in  this  way  will  keep 
for^several  years  and  in  some  instances  will  improve  with 
age.  The  pieces  should  be  hung  so  that  no  two  touch. 

Sausage. — Sausage  has  a  distinct  advantage  in  that  by 
converting  certain  parts  of  the  poorer  grades  of  pork  into 
sausage  it  is  rendered  more  palatable  and  can  be  kept 
for  a  longer  time.  Sausage  is  commonly  made  from 
scraps  and  trimmings.  Sometimes  on  the  farm  meal  or 
flour  may  be  added  to  the  sausage  to  give  it  more  body 
and  to  make  it  more  palatable.  In  the  usual  method  of 
sausage  making,  however,  only  clean  scraps  from  fresh 
pork  are  used.  These  should  contain  about  one-fourth 
fat.  To  each  4  pounds  of  the  finely  ground  meat  scraps 
should  be  added  1  ounce  of  salt  and  a  half  ounce  each  of 
ground  pepper  and  sage.  The  amount  of  seasoning  will 
depend  to  a  large  extent  upon  the  individual  taste.  The 


PORK  259 

meat  should  be  run  through  the  cutter  the  second  time 
after  the  seasoning  has  been  added.  Sausage  will  keep 
fresh  several  days  if  the  weather  is  cool  or  if  a  dry 
refrigerator  is  available.  If  it  is  intended  to  keep  it  any 
length  of  time,  the  sausage  can  be  partly  cooked  and 
covered  with  hot  lard,  or  it  can  be  stuffed  into  sausage 
casings  or  muslin  sacks,  covered  with  or  dipped  into 
melted  lard,  and  hung  up  and  smoked,  when  it  will  keep 
for  a  considerably  longer  time. 

Head  cheese. — The  hog's  head  and  sometimes  the  feet 
are  used  in  making  this  dish.  The  head  is  cleaned,  the 
eyes  removed,  the  skin  cut  off,  the  head  split  through 
lengthwise  both  ways,  fat  removed,  brains  taken  out,  and 
the  whole  put  to  soak  in  salt  water  overnight.  The  parts 
are  then  boiled  until  the  meat  easily  falls  from  the  bones. 
The  meat  is  then  finely  chopped  with  a  knife,  the  boiling 
liquor  poured  over  the  meat  and  cooked  down  until  it 
begins  to  thicken.  The  whole  is  seasoned  to  suit  with 
salt  and  pepper  and  poured  into  crocks,  dishes  and  jars 
to  be  molded,  when  it  can  be  sliced  off  and  eaten  cold 
as  needed.  Souse  is  made  in  about  the  same  manner. 

Liverwurst. — The  liver,  lights,  hearts  and  other  edible 
scraps  are  cut  into  chunks  and  stewed  until  tender,  when 
they  are  removed  from  the  fire,  allowed  to  cool,  when 
they  are  chopped  finely,  put  back  and  reheated  until  the 
mixture  begins  to  thicken,  when  they  may  be  molded  as 
in  the  case  of  head  cheese.  As  needed  it  is  sliced  off  and 
eaten  either  hot  or  cold. 

Pickled  pigs'  feet. — The  feet  are  scraped  clean,  toes 
removed,  the  clean  feet  soaked  in  cold  water  overnight, 
cooked  until  soft  and  salted  while  cooking.  They  are 


260  SOUTHERN    PORK    PRODUCTION 

then  removed  from  the  water,  split,  packed  in  earthen 
jars,  and  hot  vinegar  and  spices  are  poured  over  the  whole, 
in  which  case  they  will  keep  for  several  weeks,  if  placed 
in  a  cool  place. 

Scrapple. — Scrapple  is  made  in  the  same  manner  as 
head  cheese,  except  that  when  the  meat  is  returned  to 
the  pot  after  chopping  and  when  recooking  begins,  corn 
meal  is  stirred  in  until  the  whole  attains  the  constituency 
of  corn  meal  mush.  This  is  cooked  and  stirred  for  30 
minutes,  when  it  should  be  poured  into  shallow  dishes 
or  pans  to  be  molded.  When  cool  it  can  be  sliced  thin 
and  fried  or  eaten  cold. 

Lard. — The  best  lard  comes  from  the  leaf  fat  on  the 
inside  of  the  abdominal  wall.  The  fat  from  backs,  sides 
and  trimmings  from  the  hams,  shoulders  and  other  cuts 
make  a  very  good  grade,  while  that  lard  from  the  in- 
testinal fat,  stomach  and  pluck  is  of  an  inferior  grade 
and  should  be  rendered  separately.  Tn  rendering  or  try- 
ing out  lard  the  chunks  should  be  cut  into  cubes  of  about 
an  inch  square.  The  pieces  of  fat  are  then  placed  in  a 
kettle,  a  small  amount  of  water  added  to  keep  the  bottom 
pieces  from  sticking,  and  the  whole  cooked  until  the 
cracklings  brown  and  rise  to  the  top.  These  cracklings 
should  be  skimmed  off  and  the  lard  pressed  out  with  a 
lard  press.  The  remainder  should  then  be  strained 
through  a  cloth  into  cans  or  jars  and  stirred  until  cocl. 
The  stirring  and  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  bak- 
ing soda  will  help  to  whiten  the  lard  and  make  it  more 
salable,  if  it  is  desired  to  sell  it.  The  cracklings  are  fre- 
quently mixed  in  with  corn  meal  mush  and  with  corn 
bread.  In  this  way  an  otherwise  waste  product  can  be 
made  into  a  palatable  dish. 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Abscesses      .        .        ,;  '    . 200,201,203 

Abortion,       ,        .        „ 192 

causes       .        .-      .        . 168 

chronic     .     v  .   :'   ..  •   ' 169 

prevention 193 

Acre,  pork-producing  capacity  of 34 

Adulterants,  feed 145 

Advertising .        .         .  107,  108 

Age, 28,  227 

and  weight •..-...  86 

for    breeding  . 165 

of  breeding  swine  99 

of  maturity 94,  101 

Agriculture,  permanent 7 

Alabama .  14,  15,  16 

Alfalfa 6,  124,  125,  127,  128 

feeding,  value  of    .        .        . 136 

pasture  136 

Animals,  meat      ..........  10 

Apoplexy       . 190 

Appetite 168 

Areca  nut 198 

Arkansas 14,  15,  16 

Artichokes 6,  144 

Ascaris  suis 196 

Assimilation 25 

Associations,  record  22,  77 

swine  breeders' 32 

Atavism 27 

Back 79,  83,  89,  248 

Bacon,   breeds 53 

type .         .  36,  53,  81,  212 

Barley 144 

Barnyard  manure 2,  3 

Barrenness  44,  192 

Beans  5 

Bedding 153,  158,  159 

Belly 79,  83,  87,  248 

Berkshire, 51,  59,  62,  68,  73,  75,  101 

adaptability 65 

as  feeders 66 

association 67 

261 


262 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Berkshire,  blood  lines         .        .        ".    "...  66 

cotor       ;•        •        •         •        . '"^     '-.        .        .        '.        \  65 

distribution      .        .     ,"V-   ,.',        .      •.,        ,'•     .        .        .  66 

English •....*'.  76 

fecundity          .         .        .        .        .        .      '.;        .        .  66 

origin        .        .         . '.        \    •'-,.*  64 

size            .        .  ,   .:-,        .      '.  .      ...        .        .        .  65 

size  of  litters           .        .        .      ...        .        .        ...  66 

Bermuda,       .         .        *.  ,.:;'    .:  : ..•"..-       ....      5/124/127,138 

feeding  value  of 132 

pasture     .  .      .                                  is[ 

supplementing          .        .        .    '     .        .        .        .  132 

Big  China .'        !  53,  54 

Big  Guinea,  adaptability 74 

characteristics          .......  73 

distribution 74 

.  ori§in .'.'!'!  73 

Biology 05 

Black  Suffolk               .       • .'"'/.  62 

Blindness 190 

Blind  staggers \  19^ 

Blood  poisoning 179 

Blue  grass     . 124 

feeding  value          . 141 

pasture 140 

supplements  to 141 

Boar  breeder 34 

care  of *        *  170 

grade 30 

pure-bred 16,  34,  96 

quality  of 104 

scrub .        .        .  30,  31 

selection  of 43 

Body, *  QI 

cells is,  19,  25 

Boll  weevil            4 

Bone, ]  104 

larger  and  stronger 39 

quality  of 103 

size 103 

Borax 252 

Bran,  wheat 144 

Boys'  pig  clubs 12,  13,  14 

Breed,  best 75 

associations 77 

characteristics 52,  105 

selection  of      ........  75    76 

time  to ]        '  ']66 

type 36,  53,  103 


INDEX  263 

PAGE 

Breeders,  purchasing 98 

swine 4,  18,  209 

Breeder's  reputation            107 

Breeding       . 16,  116 

Breeding  animals,  condition  of 43 

selection   of 97 

Breeding,  best  to  best 21 

condition 43 

conditions  in  South 29 

cross 23 

for  pork 34 

for  type 35 

for  utility 36,  37 

improved,  lack  of .  30 


laws  of 
time 

management 
principles  of 
progress  in 


18,  28,  29 

23 

42 

29 

109 


promotion  of  better 32 

science  of 18 

season 166 

table 47 

Breeding  swine,  age  of 99 

as  a  business 32 

condition  of 102 

conformation  of 100 

constitution  of 94 

costs  of 97 

early  maturity  in •  100 

judging 95 

quality  of 104 

principles  of            17 

selecting 102,  103 

Breeds,  adaptability  of 52 

crossing  of 39 

new 50 

number  of 75 

of  swine 17,  19,  23,  48,  51 

origin  of 50 

white        .                76 

Bristle            104 

Bronchitis 193 

Brood  sow  management 172 

Bruises 204 

Brine,  ^ 252 

curing •  253 

fermentation  in 254 

formulas  for    .                                                                  .        .  254 


264  INDEX 

PAGE 

Brine,  ropiness  in       ,       .»       ..       •        .        .        .        •        •  254 

..'Bur  clover,  ,.,..., .  6,  127 

feeding  value 

?.f    pasture    „  

supplementing 138 

Bureau  .animal  industry     .                 12 

Burning  carcasses 205 

^Butcher,        .  85,  231 

:  ,     demands  of     .        . 84 

*•       time,  to    .„ 243 

Butchering   ,.       ..       ,. 243 

.    weather  for    . 243 

.Butter  milk           .  ' 11 

Byfield          ,.       *.       ,.        . 53 

By-products  of  wheat 140 

:  Calomel        ,.        . 198 

vCanker,,         ,.,..,.. 194 

Capital,         .       .       .. 7 

Carbohydrates    .         ..  122,  147 

Carcasses,  cooling       , 246 

:       classification  of                        . 238 

cutting  up 246 

qualifications  of 239 

quality  of         . 

soundness  of 

variations  in            237 

;  Carloads,  average 220 

Cassava 5,  6,  143 

Castration 200 

age  for 162 

Catarrh,  nasal 193 

Cell, 25 

division             25,  26 

functions 

processes 25 

structure 25 

:       wall          . 25 

Cells, 26 

body .         .         .        18,  19,  25 

germinal 18,  25 

reproduction 18 

somatic 25 

Cervix,  contraction  of         ........  44 

Character, 97 

in  unsexed  swine 94 

Characters,  acquired 19 

Mendelization  of 39 

segregation  of 20 

somatic 18 


INDEX  265 

PAGE 

Characters,  transmission  of  acquired ,18 

unit 20 

Cheese,  head     ^ 259 

Cheshire,  association 64 

blood  lines 64 

characteristics  of 64 

distribution  of 64 

origin  of 63 

Chest 79,  83,  89 

Chester  White,     .        . 52,  101 

adaptability 57 

association 58 

characteristics          » 56 

distribution 57 

fecundity 57 

origin .  56 

size  of  litters 57 

Chicken  eating 173 

Chinese          .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .  49,  56,  59,  64,  67 

Chloride  of  lime 205 

Chufas 5,  6,  122,  128 

feeding  value 136 

grazing 136 

supplementing 136 

yield 136 

Classes,  market 227,  228 

of  hogs 8 

show Ill 

Classification,  market 227 

of  hog  carcasses    .                 238 

of  swine 81 

Climate          .        . 5,  22,  28,  50,  125,  150 

Clovers 5,  128 

alsike 143 

bur 6 

crimson 6,  144 

Japan 6 

Mexican 143 

red    ...                 6 

white 6,  143 

Coal   tar   dips       .                 207 

Coastal  plain 2,  8 

Cold  storage 251 

Coloration,  protective 46 

Color  of  swine     .        . 46,  52,  53 

Commercial  fertilizer 3 

Commission  houses     .........  226 

Commission    men          .                                    225 

Condimental  feeds       .  145 


266  INDEX 

PAGE 
Condition,      .         ..•;•".        28,  83,  92,  109,  112,  114,  116,  117,  227 

degree  of 212 

healthy 43 

high 28,  43,  170 

of  breeding  animals .43,  102 

show 102 

Confinement          .        .        . 28 

Conformation,      ._  .         .  .         .        28,  96,  98,  114,  116 

of  breeding  swine 100 

of  swine 52 

Constipation 186 

Constitution, 28,  35,  83,  91,  93,  94,  95,  98 

indications  of 94 

-  lack  of 38 

Consumer  of  pork 215 

Cooking,  of  feeds 114 

fresh  pork 251 

Cooler 241 

Cooling  carcasses 247 

Co-operative,  hog  shipping 221,  222,  223 

slaughtering 242 

swine  breeding 31 

Corn, 5,  6,  116,  122,  124,  128,  129,  146 

clubs, 13 

feeding  alone 122 

feeding  value  of 129 

protein  of 120 

supplements  for 122 

supplementing 129 

Corn  belt v 54 

Corrosive  sublimate 205 

Cost  of  fifty-pound  pig 164 

Costs  of  production,  factors  influencing 211 

Cotton, 1,  10 

farmers 1 

production,  increasing .  30 

Cottonseed, 11 

meal 116,  142,  145,  146 

meal,  feeding  value  of    ........          142 

meal,  on  pasture 143 

Coughing 193 

County  swine  breeders'  association 32 

Cowpeas, 5,  6,  125,  128,  144 

feed  value  of 132 

grazing     .  ^ 132 

supplementing 132 

Crab  grass    5 

Credits 7 

Crimson  clover    ,  ....  6 


INDEX  267 

PAGE 

Crops,  cultivated 5 

fattening 5 

forage, 4,  123 

grazing 5,  123 

Cross-bred 38,  41 

Crossing  breeds 23,  24,  39,  104 

Crude  oil 207 

Cryptorchids 202 

Culls  and  waste 11 

Cumberland 59 

Curing,  brine 252,  253 

dry  252,  253 

of  meats 13 

pork,  recipes  for 254 

pork  on  farm 251 

vessels  for 252 

Cutting  up  carcasses, 246 

tools  for 248 

Cuts,  of  pork 240,  248 

farm 250 

market 250 

trimming 249 

value  of 249 

wholesale 87 

Cuts  and  bruises 200,  203 

Dairy  products 10 

Deafness 190 

Delaware 14,  15,  16 

Demands  of  butcher 84 

Demonstration  work 12 

Determination  of  sex 28 

Dew  claws 79 

Diarrhea,  causes .          187 

Digestive  system «...          180 

Dipping  solutions 207 

Dipping  vats  206 

Dips 174 

Diseases,  swine 5,  28,  174,  178 

control 174 

detection   of 175,  176 

indication  of 174,  176 

of  circulatory  system 178 

of  digestive  system 178 

of  excretory  system 178 

of  locomotor  system 178 

of  nervous  system 178 

of  reproductive  system ,          178 

of  respiratory  system 178 

of  skin.    .  178 


268  INDEX 

PAGE 

Diseases,  prevention  of 13,  174,  204 

Disinfection 204,  205 

Disposition 112 

Distribution  of   swine 14,  51 

District  of  Columbia 14,  15,  16 

Diversified  farms 10 

Domestication  of  swine, 49 

process  of 50 

Drainage 153 

Drenching 177 

Dressing, 242 

carcasses 246 

percentage 85,  91,  231 

percentage,  factors  affecting 231 

Driving  hogs  to  market 224 

Dry  curing .252,  253 

Duroc-Jersey, 52,  101 

adaptability  of 61 

association 62 

as   feeders 61 

blood  lines 60 

characteristics  of 59 

distribution 62 

fecundity 62 

origin 59 

size 60 

size  of  litters 62 

Dust 198 

Early  maturity, 22,  92,  98 

in  breeding  swine 100 

indication  of 94 

Ears 79,  83 

Eating  pigs 173 

Eczema 195 

Educational  value  of  show 108 

Embryo 26 

English  Berkshire        ....  76 


Entries,  making 
Environment 
Epilepsy 
Essex, 


associations 
blood  lines 
description  of 


110 

.   18,  22 
.  190,  191 
52,  73,  101 
63 
63 
63 
63 


distribution  of         .... 

introduction  to  America 63 

origin 62 

Exchange,  live  stock 227 

Excretory  system,  diseases  of    .        .        .        .        .        .        .  188 


INDEX  269 

PAGE 
Exercise,       .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .28,  116,  117,  118 

for  pigs    .                 .... 160 

lack  of     .        ...        .        .        .        .        .        .        ,  28,  44 

sufficient           ..........  44 

Eyes       .                                   79,  83 

Face       .        .       V     ,.        .        . 79,  83 

Fairs 110 

Fall  pigs 161 

Fallopian  tube 26 

Farmers,  pure-bred  hogs  for 38 

Farming,  live  stock     . 1 

Farms,  diversified 10 

Farrowing, 169 

difficult 170 

houses 150,  156 

houses,  winter 169 

pens 156 

Fat, <        .        .  121 

and  lean 58 

and  lean,  distribution  of      .......  87,  114 

deposition 87 

hardness  of 115 

hardening 8,  116,  146 

hog,  ideal 85,  86 

Fats 147 

Fatten,  tendency  to 26 

Fattening  propensities 100 

Fatty  degeneration 44,  179 

Fecundity 27,  28 

Federal  inspection 232,  233 

Feed,  adulterants 145 

quality 148 

quantity 148 

saying 149 

utilization .-  17 

Feeding, 13,  16 

for  the  show 112 

methods   of 114 

stuffs,  commercial 144 

swine 121 

Feeds, 4 

available 128 

bulky 117 

cooking 114 

Feet, 90,  112 

and  legs 96 

care  of 118 

Female  germ  cells        .        .        .        , 26 

Fence  breaking ..  .    .   173 


270  INDEX 

PAGE 

Fences,  drift        .        .               '.       .       •*•       .    •*"•'.       .  158 

permanent  ^ 158 

Fencing  materials 157 

Fertility, 22,  23,  24 

of  soil 2,  125 

of  soil,  increasing 9 

Fertilization  of  ovum 26 

Fertilizers, 240 

commercial 3 

Finishing  for  market 218 

Finish,  proper 115 

Fitting,  and  showing Ill 

for  show Ill 

Flanks, 91 

front 79 

rear 79 

Fleshing, 92 

deep 89 

heavy 35 

natural 115 

Floors  to  houses 152 

Florida 14,  15,  16 

Food 22 

supply 28,  33,  116 

supply  and  health 204 

supply  available 33 

supply  inadequate 50,  121 

Foot 79 

Forage  crops 13,  124 

leguminous 128 

Form     . 83,  87,  112 

Fresh  pork,  keeping 251 

Front  leg 79 

Fruits, 10 

fallen               11 

Full  blooded 41 

Gains,  cost  of 212 

rate  of 212 

Garbage 145 

Georgia 14,  15,  16 

Germinal  cells, 18,  26 

male 25 

weakness  of 44 

Germ  plasm 18,  26,  199 

Gilts, 99 

care  of 165 

Gestation 170 

period  of 167 

termination  of 167 


INDEX  271 

PAGE 

Goober,  hog 144 

Grade  boars 

Grading  up 35,  43 

Grades 41,  42 

high 42 

market 228 

Graffian  follicle 99 

Grains, .  10 

winter 124 

Grass, 4,  5,  128 

carpet 143 

crab 143 

summer 5 

Grazing, 9,  10 

lots 155,  157,  162 

type •     •  36 

Grazing  crops, 5,  6,  103,  121,  123,  127 

annual 127 

perennial 127 

rotations 124,  125,  126 

Ground  peas        .  8 

Growth 

Guinea 59 

Gulf  Coast 15 

Habits,  bad 173 

of  swine 52 

Hair, 112,  175 

condition 117 

Ham 79,  83,  87,  90,  248 

Hampshire, 52,  101 

adaptability  of 68 

association 68 

characteristics 67 

origin 67 

Hardening   fat 8,  116,  148 

Hay,  alfalfa 

cowpea 

red  clover 144 

Head, 87,  88 

cheese 259 

Health 

Heart,  fatty  degeneration  of 179 

growth 79 

Heat, 27 

periods   of 26,  46,  166 

Herd,  foundation 96 

Heredity, 17,  18,  22,  25 

laws  of 

Herdsman  120,159,170 


272  INDEX 

PAGE 

Hernia 200,  201,  202 

Hide      .  104,  176 

High  grades 38,  41 

Hind  leg 79 

Hips^ 83 

points  of 79 

Hock 79 

Hog,   breeding 28 

houses,  stationary 153 

oilers 208 

points  of 79 

Hog  cholera, 181 

acute 182 

chronic 182 

diagnosis 183 

distribution 183 

inoculation 186 

prevention 183 

serum 183,  184 

symptons 182 

Hogs,  number  per  acre      ........  125 

number  to  grow 33 

washing 112 

weights 84 

Home,  pork  for 242 

Houses 151,  152 

A-shaped,   portable 154 

movable  shelter 155 

shed  roofed,  portable 154 

Housing 4 

Hybrids 20 

Ideal,  fat  hog 85 

market  type 81 

producer's 81 

Impressions,  maternal 18 

Improved  swine 41,  42 

Inbreeding 22,  23 

Indigestion 180 

Individuality 17,  22,  37 

Infection, 18 

prevention  of 205 

Infectious  diseases 178 

Inheritance  of  acquired  characters 19 

Inspection,  federal 232 

Irish  grazier 53,  56,  70 

Japan  clover 6 

Jowl 79,  83 

Judges 80,  109,  115,  120 

Judging 103 


INDEX  273 

PAGE 

Judging,  bases  for      . .  80 

breeding  swine        .     '  - 95 

method  in  82 

of  swine          . 13 

swine 80 

swine,    standard      .        . 80 

Kentucky, 14,  15,  16 

blue  grass  pasture 140 

Kerosene 207 

Killing  hogs 244 

Labor,  ....  :'     .......  7 

saving 149 

Lameness 189 

Lard, 121,  260 

breeds^ 53 

rendering 260 

type 36,  53,  81,  212 

Large  black, 72 

association 73 

characteristics 73 

origin 73 

Large  Yorkshire,         . 52,  63,  64,  101 

adaptability 70 

association 70 

characteristics 69 

distribution 70 

importation 69 

origin 69 

size 69 

size  of  litters 

Laws  of  breeding 18 

Lean  and  fat 88 

Lean  meat 92 

Legs, 83,  90 

Legumes, 4,  5,  116,  122 

summer  .  124 

winter 124 

Leguminous  forage  crops 128 

Lespedeza 132,  144 

Lice 196 

Limitations 7 

Line  breeding        .        .        .        .        .        . 

Linseed  meal 114,  144 

Litters,  age  of  sow  on 46 

large         

marking 160 

per  year 159 

securing  large 45 

size  of  •  46 


274 


INDEX 


.  PAGE 

Liverwurst 259 

Live  stock,  droppings          ....*.  11 

exchange '.'.'.'.  225,  227 

farming ^ 

Local  buyers 221 

Locomotor  organs,  diseases  of  .*!!!!..  139 

L°in                *79,  8*3  87    89 

Louse,   hog 199 

Lots,  hog '  171 

Louisiana       .                                                                                        14  1*    IA 

,f     ,  •  •••••••  -Ltt,    J-O,    ID 

Male  germ  cells 25 

Mammitis j        *  193 

Management,  swine    ....'.!!.'       5,  13,  150 

faulty 44 

Mange .".'.'  199 

Manure,  barnyard 23 

Pjle '.         .         '.  206 

Marbling 238 

Market  classes .  227  228 

flexibility  of '  328 

Market,  classification 227 

conditions 214 

costs ...*.'  225 

demands 28,  34,  81,  106,  209,  215 

demands,  change  in 215 

finishing  for \  218 

grades ]  228 

hog,  ideal 82  84 

hogs 217 

pork 214 

standards 106 

type 34,  229 

type,  ideal 81 

values 6 

Marketing, .'  9/209,  220 

age  for 216 

age  of 94 

costs  of 211 

early 218 

finished  pork 213 

home  retail 233,  234 

size  for 216 

through  local  buyers 221 

Markets, 6 

central 224 

seasonal  demands  of 213 

Maryland       .        . 14,  15,  16 

Maternal  impressions 18 

Mature  swine,  size  of  121 


INDEX  275 

PAGE 
Maturity,  age  of 101 

early          .  22,  52,  94,  102,  109,  149 

quicker 39 

Meat  animals 10 

Meat  meal     , 145 

Medicines,  administering 176 

Mendelian  proportion 20 

Mendelism 19,  20 

Mendel's  Law 20 

Methods  of  feeding 16 

Middle  Yorkshire       .  101 

Millets,   foxtail 143 

Middlings 145 

Milk,  butter 11 

skim 11 

Mineral  matter 189 

Mississippi 14,  15,  16 

Mites 196 

Molasses        .  114,  122,  144 

Mule  Foot,  association 69 

characteristics 68 

distribution 69 

origin 68 

Mutations 48,  50 

Native  swine 42 

Natural  selection 28 

Neapolitan 49,  62,  64,  70 

Neck      .        .        .  < 79,  83,  88 

Nervous  system,  diseases  of 190 

Nettle  rash 195 

New  Jersey 16 

Normandy  swine 56 

North  Carolina 14,  15,  16 

Number,  of  breeds 

of  hogs  to  grow 

of  pigs  to  litter 44 

Nut  grass 5 

Oats, 6,  124 

pasture 

pasture,  feeding  value  of 

pasture,  supplementing 

Offal 24° 

O.  I.  C,     . f 

association °° 

origin J>8 

Oiler,  hog 208 

Ohio  Improved  Chesters •??',? 

Oklahoma 14»  15>  J° 

Old  English 70 


276 


INDEX 


Old  Yorkshire 69 

Olein      ....  147 

Orchitis         .....'.'.*.'  191 

Organs,  diseased *  44 

Origin,  of  breeds          .....*  50 

of   strains  *n 

r\  •   •     i        •                            •••••••.  ou 

Original  swine     ...  49 

ova ".    !    ;    ;  99 

ova;y 26 

Oviduct 26 

Ovum, *        |  26 

fertilization  of *  26 

Packing  plants, .        '.is,"  225,  229 

Palmatm 147 

Paralysis '  190 

Parasites .  175 

Parasitical  diseases  of  swine      .        .        .        .  *178    190 

Parturition '    26 

Pasterns *  91 

pasture, ;..*;;  125,  IBS 

Bermuda 131 

sweet  potatoes "  130 

Pastures .        "  6 

leguminous *  116 

Pasturing '  5>  i0 

Peanut  pasture 130 

Peanuts, 6,  8,  10,  124,'  128,'  131,  146 

feeding  value  of 131 

grazing .         .         .  131 

yields 130 

Pedigree 18,  22,  31,  38,  97 

Pens  and  enclosures    . 157 

Period  of  heat, .'        !  26,  46 

appearance  of                   46 

Peritonitis 201 

Pickled  pigs'  feet 259 

Piedmont  area 2 

Pig  club  agent 12 

Pig  clubs, ,i3j  14 

boys' 12 

Pigs, |  He 

eating ...  173 

exercise  for 160 

fall 161 

from  old  sows 163 

from  young  sows  . .  163 

spring 161 

to  litter 44 

to  litter,   controlling 45 


INDEX  277 

PAGE 

Pigs'  feet,  pickled 259 

Pindars 131 

Pharyngo-laryngitis 193 

Pneumonia 194 

Plasm,  germ         . 19 

Pleurisy 194 

Points  of  hog 79 

Poland-China, 52,  53,  68,  73,  101 

adaptability 54 

associations 56 

blood  lines       .        . 54 

description 54 

distribution 55 

fecundity 55 

origin  of 53 

size  of  litters 55 

Pork, 235 

as  a  food 235 

breeding  for  . 34 

composition  of 235 

cuts  of 240,  248 

finished 213 

for  home  use 242 

fresh,  consumption  of 214 

palatable 215 

producers 214 

protein  in 236 

production,  breeding  for 43 

limitations  of      ...        ......  7 

profits  from      .                .        .        .        .        .        .        .  211 

slaughtering 236,  237 

soft 146 

tender 215 

type,  ideal 35,  85 

types,  early 84 

Portuguese    ...........  59 

Potato,  sweet                        • 130 

Pregnancy, 26,  47,  165 

double • 47 

Pregnant  sows,  care  of 168 

Prepotency, 22,  39,  104 

of  pure-bred  boars         ........  39 

Preservatives 252 

Process,  reproductive 24 

Producers,  ideal 81 

Production,  cost  of      .........  164 

Profits 211 

Prolapsus  of  anus 203 

Prolificacy 27,  103 


278 


INDEX 


PAGE 

122,  147 

Protoplasm 25 

Pulse  rate  of  hog        •        ......!!!  176 

Pumpkins 144 

Pure-bred, !.•'!!  41 

advantage  of  . .  4.1 

b°ars, *16,  31,  43,  96 

prepotency  of 39 

hogs  for  farmers 38 

pigs,  market  for 167 

sire 35>  41 

sows 96,  167 

swine 33,  38 

swine  business,  future  of 33 

tempting 33 

swine,  expensive 40 

swine,  marketing    .        .         .        .        .        .        .        .        .  209 

proportion  of 30 

shipping 210 

type  of 39,  40 

type,  characteristics  of 40 

Quality, 83,  85,  90,  92,  96,  105,  114,  212,  227 

extreme 91 

in  breeding  swine  .                 104 

Rape, 6,  124 

feeding  value 135 

pasture 135 

value  per  acre 135 

Rations,  balancing 147 

calculating 147 

Razorback 9 

Recipes  for  curing  pork 254 

Record  associations, 22,  77 

purpose  of 77 

work  of  . 78 

Red  clover 6 

adaptability 142 

feeding  value  of 142 

pasture 142 

supplements  to 142 

Registration  of  swine 40,  77 

Reproduction 25 

Reproductive,  cells 18 

functions,  limiting 44 

organs,  diseases  of 191 

process 24 

system,  diseases  of 192 

Resoiration  of  swine 176 

Respiratory  system,  diseases  of 193 


INDEX  279 

PAGE 

Reversion     .•„... .  27,  35 

Ribs 89 

Rice  by-products 144 

Rickets 189 

Rooting 173 

Rubbing  post 208 

Rump 70,  83 

Runts 160 

Ruptures 202,  203 

Russian                          f 53 

Rye, 6 

pasture 139 

pasture,  feeding  value 140 

pasture,  supplementing 140 

Sacking  and  keeping  pork 257 

Sales,  combination 210 

consignment 210 

Salicylic  acid 252 

Salt 252 

Saltpeter 252 

Sanitation 13,  195,  204 

Santonin "...  198 

Saturation 18 

Sausage, 258 

making 242 

Scalding 242,  244 

Science  of  breeding 18 

Score  card 82,  83 

Scraping 242,  245 

Scrapple 260 

Scrubs 42,  97 

Scrub  boars 39 

Scrub  sire 41 

Scrub  swine 42 

Season       . 125 

Selecting  breeding  swine 38 

Selection, 17,  19,  25 

artificial 17 

basis  of 19 

breeding  swine 102 

natural 17 

of  boar    ......        „        .        .        .        . 

Selections,  how  to  make 98 

Self-feeders, 148,  149 

use  of 149 

Selling,  better  methods  of 

Septicaemia 179 

Serum,  administration  of  ........  185 

cost  of I85 


280 


INDEX 


PAGE 
Serum,  hog  cholera    .        .        .        .        .        .        *       ...         184 

hog  cholera,  dosage        .        .        .        .    '    .        .  .          185 

Sex, 227 

character 98 

control  of 45 

determination  of 28 

Sexual  functions,  overworking  .......  44 

Sexuality 95 

Shade 15H 

Sheath,   foul * .        .        .        .          192 

Shelter, .        .        .   22,  151 

and  health 204 

for  swine 150 

Shelters 113 

Shipping,  co-operative 222,  223 

direct  to  market 221 

facilities,  lack  of 223 

of  swine,  co-operative 221 

pure-bred  swine 210 

Shipment,  preparing  hogs  for    .        .        .        .        .        .        .          219 

Ship,  when  to 219 

Shorts 145 

Shoulder       ........         79,  83,  87,  88,  248 

Show,  feeding  for 112 

fitting .ill,  113,  114,  116 

equipment  for 112 

Showing, 106,  107,  117 

equipment  for 119 

overfitting  for 115 

proper 120 

Show  ring, 34,  106,  108,  111,  118,  120 

classification Ill 

standards 108 

Shows,  important 109 

Show-yard  standards 115 

Siamese 49,  64 

Sides .      79,  83 

Size 22,  23,  24,  92,  96,  102 

Skim  milk 11 

Skin .         .104,  112,  117 

Slaughter,  animals  for 243 

Slaughtering, 237 

co-operative 242 

Sleeping  quarters 155,  158 

Small  Yorkshire 52,  58,  69,  101 

adaptability 59 

association 59 

description 59 

Small  White         .  ....  .  59 


INDEX  281 

PAGH 

Smokehouses        .        *      ,  ..." 257 

Smoking^  meats    .       ..       .  ; 255 

materials  for  .        . 257 

Smoke  room         . 256 

Snout    .        .        . 79,  83 

Soda,  baking 252 

Soft  pork 8,  131 

hardening 131 

Soil  fertility, 1,  2,  10 

increasing .  9,  10 

Soil  conservation         .                1,  2 

Solway 59,  69 

Somatic  cells 25 

Somatic  characters 18 

Sore  mouth 194 

Sorghums, 6 

saccharine 144 

non-saccharine 144 

Southern  type 213 

South  Carolina 14,  15,  16 

Sow  and  pigs,  care  of 164 

Sow,  quality  in 105 

Sows,  old 163 

pure-bred 96 

size  of 46 

young 163 

Soy  beans 125,  128,  137 

Soy  bean  meal 137 

Soy  bean  pasture, 137 

feeding  value  of 137 

supplementing 137 

Soy  beans,  feed  value  of 138 

supplementing 138 

yield 138 

Spanish  red 59 

Spaying 202 

Spermatozoa 25,  26 

Spring  pigs 161 

Standards,  show  ring 108 

Starch 114 

Stearin 147 

Sterility 44,  191 

Sticking  hogs 244 

Stifle  joint 79 

Stock  hogs 95 

Stockyards 224,  225 

central 230 

Strains, 24 

of  swine 50 


282 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Strains,  origin  of        .        ; ;       .•;  '"'/.       50 

Style      .        .        .        .';.-• 93 

budan  grass 143 

Suffolk 59 

Sugar    .        .       .        .        .        .  .        .        .        '.        ;n4)  252 

Suidae 49 

Sulphur ]  207 

Sunlight !        .151,  174 

Sun  scald 196 

Sunshine 5 

Sunstroke 190 

Superfoetation      .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .     27,  47 

Superfecundation 27 

Surgery 178 

Surgical  diseases 200 

Sus  Cristatus       .        .        ,        , 49 

Sus  Indicus  .        .        .        ,        .        .        .        .        ,        .        .  49 

Sus  Scrofa 49 

Sweet  potatoes, 5,  6,  112,  124,  128 

feeding  value  of 130 

pasture      ... 130 

Swine,  bacon  type        .                 36 

breeders 4 

breeders'  association,  county 32 

breeds  of 48,  51 

breeding  as  a  business 32 

breeding,  co-operative 31 

breeding  principles 17 

breeding  terms 41 

color  of 46 

cross-bred 38 

diseases 5 

distribution  of 51 

grazing 9 

high-grade 38 

improved 42 

influence  of  domestication  on 49 

lard  type 36 

native 42 

original 49 

plague^ 194 

plasticity  of 48 

pure-bred         .        .        .                38 

registration  of 77 

scrub 42 

shows 81 

Tail 70 

Tamworth ....   52,  101 

adaptability 71 


INDEX  283 

PAGE 

Tamworth,  as  feeders 71 

association 72 

characteristics 70 

distribution 72 

importation 71 

origin 70 

Tankage 145 

Temperament 83,  93 

Temperature  of  hog 176 

Tenancy         4 

Tenderness  of  pork 215 

Tennessee 14,  15,  16 

Teosinte 143 

Terms,  swine-breeding 41 

Testicle 25 

Texas 14,  15,  16 

Thin  rind,  origin 67 

Thoroughbred 41 

Thrift 24,  95 

Thumps 187 

causes 188 

treatment 188 

Tonics 114 

Trichinosis 197 

Trimming  cuts  of  pork 249 

Transportation, 119 

early  methods  of 224 

Truck  crops 10 

Tuberculosis 194 

Tumors 201,  202,  203 

Turpentine .  198 

Tusks  of  boars 172 

Type, 36,  81,  97,  98,  212 

bacon 36,  53,  212 

breed 103,  104 

breeding  for 35 

for  South 76 

grazing 36 

ideal         .                82 

ideal  market 81 

instability  of 24 

lard 36,  53,  212 

market 229 

pork 82,  104 

profitable 109 

Types, 24 

of  swine 53 

early  maturing        ....                 ...        .167,  215 

Udder,  congestion  of  ....                ....  26 


284 


INDEX 


PAGE 
Uniformity  of  pigs      .        .        .     .   .'       ,        .        .        .  43 

Unit  characters    .        .        ....       '.       '.  20   50 

Urticaria       ......        ..."  '  '195 

Uterus ;  _  •  '•„        .        .        .        .  26 

Utility,  •         •         •         ...         .         .         '.        17,37,38,227 

breed  for 36 

Utilization  of  feed      .....  17 

Vagina .        .  44 

Value,  per  head ,16 

of  swine *  n 

Variation *.     19,  25 

Variations, .*     17^  48 

acquired .         '19 

congenital 19 

in  carcasses 237 

inherent 19 

in  weights ..."          101 

Vats,  dipping 206 

Velvet  beans, 6,  128,  144 

feed  value  of 142 

for  pasture 141 

supplements  to        ........  142 

yield I          141 

Ventilation 153 

Vermifuges 114,  193 

Vermicides 198 

Vessels  for  curing 252 

Vetch,  pasture 139 

tame 6 

wild 6 

Vetches, 128 

feeding  value 139 

supplementing 139 

Veterinarians        .        . 177 

Victoria,  adaptability 72 

association 72 

characteristics 72 

origin 72 

Vigor 22,  24,  39,  92,  95,  102 

Virginia 14,  15,  16 

Vitality 93,  103 

Wallows,  hog 195,  206 

concrete 206 

Warren  county  pig 53 

Waste  and  culls 11 

Water, 151 

supply 158 

supply  and  health .        .          204 

Watermelons  144 


INDEX  285 

PAGE 

Washing       .        ."."...              •_.        .        .        .        .  117 

Weaning  the  pig  . 164 

Weight  .        .        .,....-     ..        .        .        .        .     83,86,117,227 

Weights,       .        ....        .        .        .        .        .        .  84 

average     . 101 

standard 101 

variations  in 101 

West  Virginia      .        .  V 14,  15,  16 

Wheat  bran 144 

Wheat  by-products, 140 

feeding  value  of     . 140 

supplementing 140 

White  Leicester 69 

White  Suffolk 63 

Wholesale  cuts 87 

Windsor 59 

Wire  grass 5 

Worms 196 

kidney e  199 

lung          ...........  198 

pin 0  197 

round 196 

thorn-head 196 

treatment  for 198 

whip 197 

Yellow  wash c  258 

Yorkshire            * 51 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
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WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
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OVERDUE. 


LD  21-100W-12, '43  (8796s) 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIF 


